Objectives. Bisphosphonates (BP) are the first-line treatment for preventing fragility fractures. However, concern regarding their efficacy is growing because bisphosphonate is associated with over-suppression of remodelling and accumulation of microcracks. While dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scanning may show a gain in bone density, the impact of this class of drug on mechanical properties remains unclear. We therefore sought to quantify the mechanical strength of bone treated with BP (oral alendronate), and correlate data with the microarchitecture and density of microcracks in comparison with untreated controls. Methods. Trabecular bone from hip fracture patients treated with BP (n = 10) was compared with naïve fractured (n = 14) and non-fractured controls (n = 6). Trabecular cores were synchrotron scanned and micro-CT scanned for microstructural analysis, including quantification of bone volume fraction, microarchitecture and microcracks. The specimens were then mechanically tested in compression. Results. BP bone was 28% lower in strength than untreated hip fracture bone, and 48% lower in strength than non-fractured control bone (4.6 MPa vs 6.4 MPa vs 8.9 MPa). BP-treated bone had 24% more microcracks than naïve fractured bone and 51% more than non-fractured control (8.12/cm. 2. vs 6.55/cm. 2. vs 5.25/cm. 2. ). BP and naïve fracture bone exhibited similar trabecular microarchitecture, with significantly lower bone volume fraction and connectivity than non-fractured controls. Conclusion. BP therapy had no detectable mechanical benefit in the specimens examined. Instead, its use was associated with substantially reduced bone strength. This low strength may be due to the greater accumulation of microcracks and a lack of any discernible improvement in bone volume or microarchitecture. This preliminary study suggests that the clinical impact of BP-induced microcrack accumulation may be significant. Cite this article: A. Jin, J. Cobb, U. Hansen, R. Bhattacharya, C. Reinhard, N. Vo, R. Atwood, J. Li, A. Karunaratne, C. Wiles, R. Abel. The effect of long-term bisphosphonate therapy on trabecular bone strength and microcrack density. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:602–609. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.610.BJR-2016-0321.R1

Objectives. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature on measurement of muscle strength in patients with femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) and other pathologies and to suggest guidelines to standardise protocols for future research in the field. Methods. The Cochrane and PubMed libraries were searched for any publications using the terms ‘hip’, ‘muscle’, ‘strength’, and ‘measurement’ in the ‘Title, Abstract, Keywords’ field. A further search was performed using the terms ‘femoroacetabular’ or ‘impingement’. The search was limited to recent literature only. Results. A total of 29 articles were reviewed to obtain information on a number of variables. These comprised the type of device used for measurement, rater standardisation, the type of movements tested, body positioning and comparative studies of muscle strength in FAI versus normal controls. The studies found that hip muscle strength is lower in patients with FAI; this is also true for the asymptomatic hip in patients with FAI. Conclusions. Current literature on this subject is limited and examines multiple variables. Our recommendations for achieving reproducible results include stabilising the patient, measuring isometric movements and maximising standardisation by using a single tester and familiarising the participants with the protocol. Further work must be done to demonstrate the reliability of any new testing method. Cite this article: E. Mayne, A. Memarzadeh, P. Raut, A. Arora, V. Khanduja. Measuring hip muscle strength in patients with femoroacetabular impingement and other hip pathologies: A systematic review. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:66–72. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.61.BJR-2016-0081

Objectives. Taper junctions between modular hip arthroplasty femoral heads and stems fail by wear or corrosion which can be caused by relative motion at their interface. Increasing the assembly force can reduce relative motion and corrosion but may also damage surrounding tissues. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of increasing the impaction energy and the stiffness of the impactor tool on the stability of the taper junction and on the forces transmitted through the patient’s surrounding tissues. Methods. A commercially available impaction tool was modified to assemble components in the laboratory using impactor tips with varying stiffness at different applied energy levels. Springs were mounted below the modular components to represent the patient. The pull-off force of the head from the stem was measured to assess stability, and the displacement of the springs was measured to assess the force transmitted to the patient’s tissues. Results. The pull-off force of the head increased as the stiffness of the impactor tip increased but without increasing the force transmitted through the springs (patient). Increasing the impaction energy increased the pull-off force but also increased the force transmitted through the springs. Conclusions. To limit wear and corrosion, manufacturers should maximize the stiffness of the impactor tool but without damaging the surface of the head. This strategy will maximize the stability of the head on the stem for a given applied energy, without influencing the force transmitted through the patient’s tissues. Current impactor designs already appear to approach this limit. Increasing the applied energy (which is dependent on the mass of the hammer and square of the contact speed) increases the stability of the modular connection but proportionally increases the force transmitted through the patient’s tissues, as well as to the surface of the head, and should be restricted to safe levels. Cite this article: A. Krull, M. M. Morlock, N. E. Bishop. Maximizing the fixation strength of modular components by impaction without tissue damage. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:196–204. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.72.BJR-2017-0078.R2

There have been conflicting reports on the effects of gamma irradiation on the material properties of cortical allograft bone. To investigate changes which result from the method of preparation, test samples must be produced with similar mechanical properties to minimise variations other than those resulting from treatment. We describe a new method for the comparative measurement of bone strength using standard bone samples. We used 233 samples from six cadavers to study the effects of irradiation at a standard dose (28 kGy) alone and combined with deep freezing. We also investigated the effects of varying the dose from 6.8 to 60 kGy (n = 132). None of the treatments had any effect on the elastic behaviour of the samples, but there was a reduction in strength to 64% of control values (p < 0.01) after irradiation with 28 kGy. There was also a dose-dependent reduction in strength and in the ability of the samples to absorb work before failure. We suggest that irradiation may cause an alteration in the bone matrix of allograft bone, but provided it is used in situations in which loading is within its elastic region, then failure should not occur

Fixation of the glenoid component is critical to the outcome of total shoulder arthroplasty. In an in vitro study, we analysed the effect of surface design and thickness of the cement mantle on the pull-out strength of the polyethylene pegs which are considered essential for fixation of cemented glenoid components. The macrostructure and surface of the pegs and the thickness of the cement mantle were studied in human glenoid bone. The lowest pull-out forces, 20 ± 5 N, were for cylindrical pegs with a smooth surface fixed in the glenoid with a thin cement mantle. The highest values, 425 ± 7 N, were for threaded pegs fixed with a thicker cement mantle. Increasing the diameter of the hole into which the peg is inserted from 5.2 to 6.2 mm thereby increasing the thickness of the cement mantle, improved the mean pull-out force for the pegs tested

Aims

This study intended to investigate the effect of vericiguat (VIT) on titanium rod osseointegration in aged rats with iron overload, and also explore the role of VIT in osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation.

Objectives. The objective of this study was to determine if combining variations in mixing technique of antibiotic-impregnated polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) cement with low frequency ultrasound (LFUS) improves antibiotic elution during the initial high phase (Phase I) and subsequent low phase (Phase II) while not diminishing mechanical strength. Methods. Three batches of vancomycin-loaded PMMA were prepared with different mixing techniques: a standard technique; a delayed technique; and a control without antibiotic. Daily elution samples were analysed using flow injection analysis (FIA). Beginning in Phase II, samples from each mix group were selected randomly to undergo either five, 15, 45, or 0 minutes of LFUS treatment. Elution amounts between LFUS treatments were analysed. Following Phase II, compression testing was done to quantify strength. A-priorit-tests and univariate ANOVAs were used to compare elution and mechanical test results between the two mix groups and the control group. Results. The delayed technique showed a significant increase in elution on day one compared with the standard mix technique (p < 0.001). The transition point from Phase I to Phase II occurred on day ten. LFUS treatments significantly increased elution amounts for all groups above control. Delayed technique resulted in significantly higher elution amounts for the five-minute- (p = 0.004) and 45-minute- (p < 0.001) duration groups compared with standard technique. Additionally, the correlations between LFUS duration and total elution amount for both mix techniques were significant (p = 0.03). Both antibiotic-impregnated groups exhibited a significant decrease in offset yield stress compared with the control group (p < 0.001), however, their lower 95% confidence intervals were all above the 70 MPa limit defined by International Standards Organization (ISO) 5833-2 reference standard for acrylic bone cement. Conclusion. The combination of a delayed mix technique with LFUS treatments provides a reasonable means for increasing both short- and long-term antibiotic elution without affecting mechanical strength. Cite this article: Dr. T. McIff. Combination of modified mixing technique and low frequency ultrasound to control the elution profile of vancomycin-loaded acrylic bone cement. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:26–32. doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.52.2000412

Objectives. All-suture anchors are increasingly used in rotator cuff repair procedures. Potential benefits include decreased bone damage. However, there is limited published evidence for the relative strength of fixation for all-suture anchors compared with traditional anchors. Materials and Methods. A total of four commercially available all-suture anchors, the ‘Y-Knot’ (ConMed), Q-FIX (Smith & Nephew), ICONIX (Stryker) and JuggerKnot (Zimmer Biomet) and a traditional anchor control TWINFIX Ultra PK Suture Anchor (Smith & Nephew) were tested in cadaveric human humeral head rotator cuff repair models (n = 24). This construct underwent cyclic loading applied by a mechanical testing rig (Zwick/Roell). Ultimate load to failure, gap formation at 50, 100, 150 and 200 cycles, and failure mechanism were recorded. Significance was set at p < 0.05. Results. Overall, mean maximum tensile strength values were significantly higher for the traditional anchor (181.0 N, standard error (. se). 17.6) compared with the all-suture anchors (mean 133.1 N . se. 16.7) (p = 0.04). The JuggerKnot anchor had greatest displacement at 50, 100 and 150 cycles, and at failure, reaching statistical significance over the control at 100 and 150 cycles (22.6 mm . se. 2.5 versus 12.5 mm . se. 0.3; and 29.6 mm . se. 4.8 versus 17.0 mm . se. 0.7). Every all-suture anchor tested showed substantial (> 5 mm) displacement between 50 and 100 cycles (6.2 to 14.3). All-suture anchors predominantly failed due to anchor pull-out (95% versus 25% of traditional anchors), whereas a higher proportion of traditional anchors failed secondary to suture breakage. Conclusion. We demonstrate decreased failure load, increased total displacement, and variable failure mechanisms in all-suture anchors, compared with traditional anchors designed for rotator cuff repair. These findings will aid the surgeon’s choice of implant, in the context of the clinical scenario. Cite this article: N. S. Nagra, N. Zargar, R. D. J. Smith, A. J. Carr. Mechanical properties of all-suture anchors for rotator cuff repair. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:82–89. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.62.BJR-2016-0225.R1

The aim of this biomechanical study was to investigate the role of the dorsal vertebral cortex in transpedicular screw fixation. Moss transpedicular screws were introduced into both pedicles of each vertebra in 25 human cadaver vertebrae. The dorsal vertebral cortex and subcortical bone corresponding to the entrance site of the screw were removed on one side and preserved on the other. Biomechanical testing showed that the mean peak pull-out strength for the inserted screws, following removal of the dorsal cortex, was 956.16 N. If the dorsal cortex was preserved, the mean peak pullout strength was 1295.64 N. The mean increase was 339.48 N (26.13%; p = 0.033). The bone mineral density correlated positively with peak pull-out strength. Preservation of the dorsal vertebral cortex at the site of insertion of the screw offers a significant increase in peak pull-out strength. This may result from engagement by the final screw threads in the denser bone of the dorsal cortex and the underlying subcortical area. Every effort should be made to preserve the dorsal vertebral cortex during insertion of transpedicular screws

We compared the bulking and tensile strength of the Pennington modified Kessler, Cruciate and the Savage repairs in an ex vivo model. A total of 60 porcine tendons were randomised to three groups, half repaired using a core suture alone and the remainder employing a core and peripheral technique. The tendons were distracted to failure. The force required to produce a 3 mm gap, the ultimate strength, the mode of failure and bulking for each repair were assessed. We found that there was a significant increase in strength without an increase in bulk as the number of strands increased. The Cruciate repair was significantly more likely to fail by suture pullout than the Pennington modified Kessler or Savage repairs. We advise the use of the Savage repair, especially in the thumb, and a Cruciate when a Savage is not possible. The Pennington modified Kessler repair should be reserved for multiple tendon injuries

We have investigated the role of the penetration of saline on the shear strength of the cement-stem interface for stems inserted at room temperature and those preheated to 37°C using a variety of commercial bone cements. Immersion in saline for two weeks at 37°C reduced interfacial strength by 56% to 88% after insertion at room temperature and by 28% to 49% after preheating of the stem. The reduction in porosity as a result of preheating ranged from 71% to 100%. Increased porosity correlated with a reduction in shear strength after immersion in saline (r = 0.839, p < 0.01) indicating that interfacial porosity may act as a fluid conduit

The role of vacuum mixing on the reduction of porosity and on the clinical performance of cemented total hip replacements remains uncertain. We have used paired femoral constructs prepared with either hand-mixed or vacuum-mixed cement in a cadaver model which simulated intra-operative conditions during cementing of the femoral component. After the cement had cured, the distribution of its porosity was determined, as was the strength of the cement-stem and cement-bone interfaces. The overall fraction of the pore area was similar for both hand-mixed and vacuum-mixed cement (hand 6%; vacuum 5.7%; paired t-test, p = 0.187). The linear pore fractions at the interfaces were also similar for the two techniques. The pore number-density was much higher for the hand-mixed cement (paired t-test, p = 0.0013). The strength of the cement-stem interface was greater with the hand-mixed cement (paired t-test, p = 0.0005), while the strength of the cement-bone interface was not affected by the conditions of mixing (paired t-test, p = 0.275). The reduction in porosity with vacuum mixing did not affect the porosity of the mantle, but the distribution of the porosity can be affected by the technique of mixing used

We performed a biomechanical study to compare the augmentation of isolated fractured vertebral bodies using two different bone tamps. Compression fractures were created in 21 vertebral bodies harvested from red deer after determining their initial strength and stiffness, which was then assessed after standardised bipedicular vertebral augmentation using a balloon or an expandable polymer bone tamp. The median strength and stiffness of the balloon bone tamp group was 6.71 kN (. sd. 2.71) and 1.885 kN/mm (. sd. 0.340), respectively, versus 7.36 kN (. sd. 3.43) and 1.882 kN/mm (. sd. 0.868) in the polymer bone tamp group. The strength and stiffness tended to be greater in the polymer bone tamp group than in the balloon bone tamp group, but this difference was not statistically significant (strength p > 0.8, and stiffness p = 0.4)

We examined macroscopically and microscopically 55 cadaver rotator-cuff tendons attached to their humeral heads to determine the distance between the edge of the articular cartilage and the tendon insertion of the supraspinatus (the width of the sulcus) and the score of regressive changes at the sulcus. In 33 specimens we measured the tensile strength. The width of the sulcus was correlated with the score of regressive changes and with the ultimate tensile strength of the supraspinatus tendon. The width of the sulcus correlated positively with the score of regressive changes (r = 0.66, p < 0.0001), but there was a negative correlation between the latter and the ultimate tensile strength (r = −0.81, p = 0.001) and between the width of the sulcus and the ultimate tensile strength (r = −0.74, p = 0.004). We believe that the width of the sulcus is a simple and useful clinical indicator of the integrity and the tensile strength of the supraspinatus tendon

Objectives. After an injury, the biological reattachment of tendon to bone is a challenge because healing takes place between a soft (tendon) and a hard (bone) tissue. Even after healing, the transition zone in the enthesis is not completely regenerated, making it susceptible to re-injury. In this study, we aimed to regenerate Achilles tendon entheses (ATEs) in wounded rats using a combination of kartogenin (KGN) and platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Methods. Wounds created in rat ATEs were given three different treatments: kartogenin platelet-rich plasma (KGN-PRP); PRP; or saline (control), followed by histological and immunochemical analyses, and mechanical testing of the rat ATEs after three months of healing. Results. Histological analysis showed well organised arrangement of collagen fibres and proteoglycan formation in the wounded ATEs in the KGN-PRP group. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis revealed fibrocartilage formation in the KGN-PRP-treated ATEs, evidenced by the presence of both collagen I and II in the healed ATE. Larger positively stained collagen III areas were found in both PRP and saline groups than those in the KGN-PRP group. Chondrocyte-related genes, SOX9 and collagen II, and tenocyte-related genes, collagen I and scleraxis (SCX), were also upregulated by KGN-PRP. Moreover, mechanical testing results showed higher ultimate tensile strength in the KGN-PRP group than in the saline control group. In contrast, PRP treatment appeared to have healed the injured ATE but induced no apparent formation of fibrocartilage. The saline-treated group showed poor healing without fibrocartilage tissue formation in the ATEs. Conclusions. Our results show that injection of KGN-PRP induces fibrocartilage formation in the wounded rat ATEs. Hence, KGN-PRP may be a clinically relevant, biological approach to regenerate injured enthesis effectively. Cite this article: J. Zhang, T. Yuan, N. Zheng, Y. Zhou, M. V. Hogan, J. H-C. Wang. The combined use of kartogenin and platelet-rich plasma promotes fibrocartilage formation in the wounded rat Achilles tendon entheses. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:231–244. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.64.BJR-2017-0268.R1

We investigated the effect of pre-heating a femoral component on the porosity and strength of bone cement, with or without vacuum mixing used for total hip replacement. Cement mantles were moulded in a manner simulating clinical practice for cemented hip replacement. During polymerisation, the temperature was monitored. Specimens of cement extracted from the mantles underwent bending or fatigue tests, and were examined for porosity. Pre-heating the stem alone significantly increased the mean temperature values measured within the mantle (+14.2°C) (p < 0.001) and reduced the mean curing time (−1.5 min) (p < 0.001). The addition of vacuum mixing modulated the mean rise in the temperature of polymerisation to 11°C and reduced the mean duration of the process by one minute and 50 seconds (p = 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). In all cases, the maximum temperature values measured in the mould simulating the femur were < 50°C. The mixing technique and pre-heating the stem slightly increased the static mechanical strength of bone cement. However, the fatigue life of the cement was improved by both vacuum mixing and pre-heating the stem, but was most marked (+ 280°C) when these methods were combined. Pre-heating the stem appears to be an effective way of improving the quality of the cement mantle, which might enhance the long-term performance of bone cement, especially when combined with vacuum mixing

Objectives. We investigated the effects on fracture healing of two up-regulators of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in a rat model of an open femoral osteotomy: tadalafil, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, and the recently reported nutraceutical, COMB-4 (consisting of L-citrulline, Paullinia cupana, ginger and muira puama), given orally for either 14 or 42 days. Materials and Methods. Unilateral femoral osteotomies were created in 58 male rats and fixed with an intramedullary compression nail. Rats were treated daily either with vehicle, tadalafil or COMB-4. Biomechanical testing of the healed fracture was performed on day 42. The volume, mineral content and bone density of the callus were measured by quantitative CT on days 14 and 42. Expression of iNOS was measured by immunohistochemistry. Results. When compared with the control group, the COMB-4 group exhibited 46% higher maximum strength (t-test, p = 0.029) and 92% higher stiffness (t-test, p = 0.023), but no significant changes were observed in the tadalafil group. At days 14 and 42, there was no significant difference between the three groups with respect to callus volume, mineral content and bone density. Expression of iNOS at day 14 was significantly higher in the COMB-4 group which, as expected, had returned to baseline levels at day 42. Conclusion. This study demonstrates an enhancement in fracture healing by an oral natural product known to augment iNOS expression. Cite this article: R. A. Rajfer, A. Kilic, A. S. Neviaser, L. M. Schulte, S. M. Hlaing, J. Landeros, M. G. Ferrini, E. Ebramzadeh, S-H. Park. Enhancement of fracture healing in the rat, modulated by compounds that stimulate inducible nitric oxide synthase: Acceleration of fracture healing via inducible nitric oxide synthase. Bone Joint Res 2017:6:–97. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.62.BJR-2016-0164.R2

In vivo animal experimentation has been one of the cornerstones of biological and biomedical research, particularly in the field of clinical medicine and pharmaceuticals. The conventional in vivo model system is invariably associated with high production costs and strict ethical considerations. These limitations led to the evolution of an ex vivo model system which partially or completely surmounted some of the constraints faced in an in vivo model system. The ex vivo rodent bone culture system has been used to elucidate the understanding of skeletal physiology and pathophysiology for more than 90 years. This review attempts to provide a brief summary of the historical evolution of the rodent bone culture system with emphasis on the strengths and limitations of the model. It encompasses the frequency of use of rats and mice for ex vivo bone studies, nutritional requirements in ex vivo bone growth and emerging developments and technologies. This compilation of information could assist researchers in the field of regenerative medicine and bone tissue engineering towards a better understanding of skeletal growth and development for application in general clinical medicine. Cite this article: A. A. Abubakar, M. M. Noordin, T. I. Azmi, U. Kaka, M. Y. Loqman. The use of rats and mice as animal models in ex vivo bone growth and development studies. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:610–618. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.512.BJR-2016-0102.R2

This study investigated the quality and quantity of healing of a bone defect following intramedullary reaming undertaken by two fundamentally different systems; conventional, using non-irrigated, multiple passes; or suction/irrigation, using one pass. The result of a measured re-implantation of the product of reaming was examined in one additional group. We used 24 Swiss mountain sheep with a mean tibial medullary canal diameter between 8 mm and 9 mm. An 8 mm ‘napkin ring’ defect was created at the mid-diaphysis. The wound was either surgically closed or occluded. The medullary cavity was then reamed to 11 mm. The Reamer/Irrigator/Aspirator (RIA) System was used for the reaming procedure in groups A (RIA and autofilling) and B (RIA, collected reamings filled up), whereas reaming in group C (Synream and autofilling) was performed with the Synream System. The defect was allowed to auto-fill with reamings in groups A and C, but in group B, the defect was surgically filled with collected reamings. The tibia was then stabilised with a solid locking Unreamed Humerus Nail (UHN), 9.5 mm in diameter. The animals were killed after six weeks. After the implants were removed, measurements were taken to assess the stiffness, strength and callus formation at the site of the defect. There was no significant difference between healing after conventional reaming or suction/irrigation reaming. A significant improvement in the quality of the callus was demonstrated by surgically placing captured reamings into the defect using a graft harvesting system attached to the aspirator device. This was confirmed by biomechanical testing of stiffness and strength. This study suggests it could be beneficial to fill cortical defects with reaming particles in clinical practice, if feasible

Repair of the rotator cuff requires secure reattachment, but large chronic defects cause osteoporosis of the greater tuberosity which may then have insufficient strength to allow proper fixation of the tendon. Recently, suture anchors have been introduced, but have not been fully evaluated. We have investigated the strength of suture-to-anchor attachment, and the use of suture anchors in repairs of the rotator cuff either to the greater tuberosity or the lateral cortex of the humerus. The second method gave a significant increase in the strength of the repair (p = 0.014). The repairs were loaded cyclically and failed at low loads by cutting into bone and tendon, casting doubt on the integrity of the repair in early mobilisation after surgery. Repairs with suture anchors did not perform better than those with conventional transosseous attachment

Objectives. Healing in cancellous metaphyseal bone might be different from midshaft fracture healing due to different access to mesenchymal stem cells, and because metaphyseal bone often heals without a cartilaginous phase. Inflammation plays an important role in the healing of a shaft fracture, but if metaphyseal injury is different, it is important to clarify if the role of inflammation is also different. The biology of fracture healing is also influenced by the degree of mechanical stability. It is unclear if inflammation interacts with stability-related factors. Methods. We investigated the role of inflammation in three different models: a metaphyseal screw pull-out, a shaft fracture with unstable nailing (IM-nail) and a stable external fixation (ExFix) model. For each, half of the animals received dexamethasone to reduce inflammation, and half received control injections. Mechanical and morphometric evaluation was used. Results. As expected, dexamethasone had a strong inhibitory effect on the healing of unstable, but also stable, shaft fractures. In contrast, dexamethasone tended to increase the mechanical strength of metaphyseal bone regenerated under stable conditions. Conclusions. It seems that dexamethasone has different effects on metaphyseal and diaphyseal bone healing. This could be explained by the different role of inflammation at different sites of injury. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2015;4:170–175

We have developed a bioactive bone cement (BA cement) consisting of Bis-GMA resin and bioactive glass powder. It has high compressive and tensile strengths, a low curing temperature and its bioactivity allows it to bond directly with bone. We operated on the 18 femora of nine mongrel dogs for intercalary replacement of part of the bone by a metal prosthesis using either PMMA cement or BA cement for fixation. Three dogs were killed at each of 4, 12 and 26 weeks after surgery for the evaluation of fixation strength by a push-out test and for histological examination by Giemsa surface staining and SEM. Fixation strengths with PMMA cement at 4, 12 and 26 weeks after surgery were 46.8 ± 18.9, 50.0 ± 24.7, and 58.2 ± 28.9 kgf (mean ±SD), respectively. Those with BA cement were 56.8 ± 26.1, 67.2 ± 19.2, and 72.8 ± 22.2 kgf, respectively. Fibrous tissue intervened between bone and PMMA cement but BA cement had bonded directly to bone at 12 and 26 weeks. This suggests that BA cement will be useful in providing long-lasting fixation of implants to bone under weight-bearing conditions

Objectives. The objective of this study was to compare the elution characteristics, antimicrobial activity and mechanical properties of antibiotic-loaded bone cement (ALBC) loaded with powdered antibiotic, powdered antibiotic with inert filler (xylitol), or liquid antibiotic, particularly focusing on vancomycin and amphotericin B. Methods. Cement specimens loaded with 2 g of vancomycin or amphotericin B powder (powder group), 2 g of antibiotic powder and 2 g of xylitol (xylitol group) or 12 ml of antibiotic solution containing 2 g of antibiotic (liquid group) were tested. Results. Vancomycin elution was enhanced by 234% in the liquid group and by 12% in the xylitol group compared with the powder group. Amphotericin B elution was enhanced by 265% in the liquid group and by 65% in the xylitol group compared with the powder group. Based on the disk-diffusion assay, the eluate samples of vancomycin-loaded ALBC of the liquid group exhibited a significantly larger inhibitory zone than samples of the powder or the xylitol group. Regarding the ALBCs loaded with amphotericin B, only the eluate samples of the liquid group exhibited a clear inhibitory zone, which was not observed in either the xylitol or the powder groups. The ultimate compressive strength was significantly reduced in specimens containing liquid antibiotics. Conclusions. Adding vancomycin or amphotericin B antibiotic powder in distilled water before mixing with bone cement can significantly improve the efficiency of antibiotic release than can loading ALBC with the same dose of antibiotic powder. This simple and effective method for preparation of ALBCs can significantly improve the efficiency of antibiotic release in ALBCs. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:246–51

This study was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism of biological repair at the tendon-bone junction in a rat model. The stump of the toe flexor tendon was sutured to a drilled hole in the tibia (tendon suture group, n = 23) to investigate healing of the tendon-bone junction both radiologically and histologically. Radiological and histological findings were compared with those observed in a sham control group where the bone alone was drilled (n = 19). The biomechanical strength of the repaired junction was confirmed by pull-out testing six weeks after surgery in four rats in the tendon suture group. Callus formation was observed at the site of repair in the tendon suture group, whereas in the sham group callus formation was minimal. During the pull-out test, the repaired tendon-bone junction did not fail because the musculotendinous junction always disrupted first. In order to understand the factors that influenced callus formation at the site of repair, four further groups were evaluated. The nature of the sutured tendon itself was investigated by analysing healing of a tendon stump after necrosis had been induced with liquid nitrogen in 16 cases. A proximal suture group (n = 16) and a partial tenotomy group (n = 16) were prepared to investigate the effects of biomechanical loading on the site of repair. Finally, a group where the periosteum had been excised at the site of repair (n = 16) was examined to study the role of the periosteum. These four groups showed less callus formation radiologically and histologically than did the tendon suture group. In conclusion, the sutured tendon-bone junction healed and achieved mechanical strength at six weeks after suturing, showing good local callus formation. The viability of the tendon stump, mechanical loading and intact periosteum were all found to be important factors for better callus formation at a repaired tendon-bone junction

Objectives . The objective of this study is to determine an optimal antibiotic-loaded bone cement (ALBC) for infection prophylaxis in total joint arthroplasty (TJA). Methods. We evaluated the antibacterial effects of polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) bone cements loaded with vancomycin, teicoplanin, ceftazidime, imipenem, piperacillin, gentamicin, and tobramycin against methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus (MRSA), coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. Standardised cement specimens made from 40 g PMMA loaded with 1 g antibiotics were tested for elution characteristics, antibacterial activities, and compressive strength in vitro. . Results. The ALBC containing gentamicin provided a much longer duration of antibiotic release than those containing other antibiotic. Imipenem-loading on the cement had a significant adverse effect on the compressive strength of the ALBC, which made it insufficient for use in prosthesis fixation. All of the tested antibiotics maintained their antibacterial properties after being mixed with PMMA. The gentamicin-loaded ALBC provided a broad antibacterial spectrum against all the test organisms and had the greatest duration of antibacterial activity against MSSA, CoNS, P. aeruginosa and E. coli. . Conclusion. When considering the use of ALBC as infection prophylaxis in TJA, gentamicin-loaded ALBC may be a very effective choice. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2013;2:220–6

Objectives. This study tests the biomechanical properties of adjacent locked plate constructs in a femur model using Sawbones. Previous studies have described biomechanical behaviour related to inter-device distances. We hypothesise that a smaller lateral inter-plate distance will result in a biomechanically stronger construct, and that addition of an anterior plate will increase the overall strength of the construct. Methods. Sawbones were plated laterally with two large-fragment locking compression plates with inter-plate distances of 10 mm or 1 mm. Small-fragment locking compression plates of 7-hole, 9-hole, and 11-hole sizes were placed anteriorly to span the inter-plate distance. Four-point bend loading was applied, and the moment required to displace the constructs by 10 mm was recorded. Results . We found that a 1 mm inter-plate distance supported greater moments than a 10 mm distance in constructs with only lateral plates. Moments supported after the addition of a 9- or 11-hole anterior plate were greater for both 10 mm and 1 mm inter-plate distance, with the 11-hole anterior plate supporting a greater moment than a 9-hole plate. Femurs with a 7-hole anterior plate fractured regardless of lateral inter-plate distance size. Conclusion. This suggests that the optimal plate configuration is to minimise lateral inter-plate distance and protect it with an anterior plate longer than seven holes. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2015;4:23–8

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to evaluate chronological changes in the collagen-type composition at tendon–bone interface during tendon–bone healing and to clarify the continuity between Sharpey-like fibres and inner fibres of the tendon. Methods. Male white rabbits were used to create an extra-articular bone–tendon graft model by grafting the extensor digitorum longus into a bone tunnel. Three rabbits were killed at two, four, eight, 12 and 26 weeks post-operatively. Elastica van Gieson staining was used to colour 5 µm coronal sections, which were examined under optical and polarised light microscopy. Immunostaining for type I, II and III collagen was also performed. Results. Sharpey-like fibres comprised of type III collagen in the early phase were gradually replaced by type I collagen from 12 weeks onwards, until continuity between the Sharpey-like fibres and inner fibres of the tendon was achieved by 26 weeks. Conclusions. Even in rabbits, which heal faster than humans, an observation period of at least 12 to 26 weeks is required, because the collagen-type composition of the Sharpey-like fibre bone–tendon connection may have insufficient pullout strength during this period. These results suggest that caution is necessary when permitting post-operative activity in humans who have undergone intra-bone tunnel grafts

Vertebroplasty, which is the percutaneous injection of bone cement into vertebral bodies has recently been used to treat painful osteoporotic compression fractures. Early clinical results have been encouraging, but very little is known about the consequences of augmentation with cement for the adjacent, non-augmented level. We therefore measured the overall failure, strength and structural stiffness of paired osteoporotic two-vertebra functional spine units (FSUs). One FSU of each pair was augmented with polymethyl-methacrylate bone cement in the caudal vertebra, while the other served as an untreated control. Compared with the controls, the ultimate failure load for FSUs treated by injection of cement was lower. The geometric mean treated/untreated ratio of failure load was 0.81, with 95% confidence limits from 0.70 to 0.92, (p < 0.01). There was no significant difference in overall FSU stiffness. For treated FSUs, there was a trend towards lower failure loads with increased filling with cement (r. 2. = 0.262, p = 0.13). The current practice of maximum filling with cement to restore the stiffness and strength of a vertebral body may provoke fractures in adjacent, non-augmented vertebrae. Further investigation is required to determine an optimal protocol for augmentation

We have studied the effect of hydroxyapatite (HA) coating in 15 ovariectomised and 15 normal rats which had had a sham procedure. Twenty-four weeks after operation, HA-coated implants were inserted into the intramedullary canal of the right femur and uncoated implants into the left femur. The prostheses were removed four weeks after implantation. Twelve specimens in each group had mechanical push-out tests. Sagittal sections of the other three were evaluated by SEM. The bone mineral density (BMD) of the dissected left tibia was measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. The difference in BMD between the control and ovariectomised tibiae was 35.01 mg/cm. 2. (95% CI, 26.60 to 43.42). The push-out strength of the HA-coated implants was higher than that of the uncoated implants in both groups (p < 0.0001), but the HA-coated implants of the ovariectomised group had a reduction in push-out strength of 40.3% compared with the control group (p < 0.0001). Our findings suggest that HA-coated implants may improve the fixation of a cementless total hip prosthesis but that the presence of osteoporosis may limit the magnitude of this benefit

We split 100 porcine flexor tendons into five groups of 20 tendons for repair. Three groups were repaired using the Pennington modified Kessler technique, the cruciate or the Savage technique, one using one new device per tendon and the other with two new devices per tendon. Half of the tendons received supplemental circumferential Silfverskiöld type B cross-stitch. The repairs were loaded to failure and a record made of their bulk, the force required to produce a 3 mm gap, the maximum force applied before failure and the stiffness. When only one device was used repairs were equivalent to the Pennington modified Kessler for all parameters except the force to produce a 3 mm gap when supplemented with a circumferential repair, which was equivalent to the cruciate. When two devices were used the repair strength was equivalent to the cruciate repair, and when the two-device repair was supplemented with a circumferential suture the force to produce a 3 mm gap was equivalent to that of the Savage six-strand technique

We used a biodegradable mesh to convert an acetabular defect into a contained defect in six patients at total hip replacement. Their mean age was 61 years (46 to 69). The mean follow-up was 32 months (19 to 50). Before clinical use, the strength retention and hydrolytic in vitro degradation properties of the implants were studied in the laboratory over a two-year period. A successful clinical outcome was determined by the radiological findings and the Harris hip score. All the patients had a satisfactory outcome and no mechanical failures or other complications were observed. No protrusion of any of the impacted grafts was observed beyond the mesh. According to our preliminary laboratory and clinical results the biodegradable mesh is suitable for augmenting uncontained acetabular defects in which the primary stability of the implanted acetabular component is provided by the host bone. In the case of defects of the acetabular floor this new application provides a safe method of preventing graft material from protruding excessively into the pelvis and the mesh seems to tolerate bone-impaction grafting in selected patients with primary and revision total hip replacement

The intermittent administration of parathyroid hormone (PTH) increases the formation of bone by stimulating osteoblastic activity. Our study evaluates the possibility that intermittent treatment with PTH (1-34) may also enhance the implant-bone fixation of stainless-steel screws. Twenty-eight rats received one screw in either one (n = 8) or in both (n = 20) proximal tibiae. We administered either PTH (1-34) in a dosage of 60 μg/kg/day (n = 14) or vehicle (n = 14) over a period of four weeks. At the end of this time, the degree of fixation was assessed by measuring the removal torque on one screw in each rat (n = 28) and the pull-out strength on the contralateral screw (n = 20). PTH increased the mean removal torque from 1.1 to 3.5 Ncm (p = 0.001) and the mean pull-out strength from 66 to 145 N (p = 0.002). No significant differences in body-weight or ash weight of the femora were seen. Histological examination showed that both groups had areas of soft tissue at the implant-bone interface, but these appeared less in the PTH group. These results indicate that intermittent treatment with PTH may enhance the early fixation of orthopaedic implants

A total of 20 pairs of fresh-frozen cadaver femurs were assigned to four alignment groups consisting of relative varus (10° and 20°) and relative valgus (10° and 20°), 75 composite femurs of two neck geometries were also used. In both the cadaver and the composite femurs, placing the component in 20° of valgus resulted in a significant increase in load to failure. Placing the component in 10° of valgus had no appreciable effect on increasing the load to failure except in the composite femurs with varus native femoral necks. Specimens in 10° of varus were significantly weaker than the neutrally-aligned specimens. The results suggest that retention of the intact proximal femoral strength occurs at an implant angulation of ≥ 142°. However, the benefit of extreme valgus alignment may be outweighed in clinical practice by the risk of superior femoral neck notching, which was avoided in this study

Our aim was to analyse the effect of avascularity on the morphology and mechanical properties (tensile strength, viscoelasticity) of human bone-patellar-tendon-bone (BPTB) grafts in vitro. These were harvested at postmortem and stored submerged in denaturated human plasma at a constant pH, pO. 2. , pCO. 2. , temperature and humidity under sterile conditions. Mechanical testing was performed two and four weeks after removal of the graft. The mean ultimate strength was 1085.7 ± 255.8 N (control), 1009.0 ± 314.9 N (two weeks cultured) and 1076.8 ± 414.8 N (four weeks cultured). There was no significant difference in linear stiffness or deformation to failure between the groups. There was a difference in viscoelasticity between the control group and the avascular grafts and the latter had significant lower peak load-to-load ratios after 15 minutes compared with the control group. After two and four weeks the graft contained viable fibroblasts. There was regular cellularity in the superficial layers and decreased cellularity in the midportion. The structure of the collagen including the crimp pattern appeared to be normal in polarised light. We conclude that avascularity does not significantly affect ultimate failure loads or stiffness of BPTB grafts. Slight changes in viscoelasticity were induced, but the significance of the increased stress relaxation is not fully understood

In a rabbit model we investigated the efficacy of a silk fibroin/hydroxyapatite (SF/HA) composite on the repair of a segmental bone defect. Four types of porous SF/HA composites (SF/HA-1, SF/HA-2, SF/HA-3, SF/HA-4) with different material ratios, pore sizes, porosity and additives were implanted subcutaneously into Sprague-Dawley rats to observe biodegradation. SF/HA-3, which had characteristics more suitable for a bone substitite based on strength and resorption was selected as a scaffold and co-cultured with rabbit bone-marrow stromal cells (BMSCs). A segmental bone defect was created in the rabbit radius. The animals were randomised into group 1 (SF/HA-3 combined with BMSCs implanted into the bone defect), group 2 (SF/HA implanted alone) and group 3 (nothing implanted). They were killed at four, eight and 12 weeks for visual, radiological and histological study. The bone defects had complete union for group 1 and partial union in group 2, 12 weeks after operation. There was no formation of new bone in group 3. We conclude that SF/HA-3 combined with BMSCs supports bone healing and offers potential as a bone-graft substitute

We investigated the effect of mitomycin-C on the reduction of the formation of peritendinous fibrous adhesions after tendon repair. In 20 Wistar albino rats the tendo Achillis was cut and repaired using a modified Kessler technique. The rats were divided into two equal groups. In group 1, an injection of mitomycin-C was placed between the tendon and skin of the right leg. In group 2, an identical volume of sterile normal saline was injected on the left side in a similar fashion. All the rats received mitomycin-C or saline for four weeks starting from the day of operation. The animals were killed after 30 days. The formation of peritendinous fibrous tissue, the inflammatory reaction and tendon healing were evaluated. The tensile strength of the repaired tendons was measured biomechanically. Microscopic evidence of the formation of adhesions and inflammation was less in group 1. There was no significant difference in the tensile load required to rupture the repaired tendons in the two groups. Mitomycin-C may therefore provide a simple and inexpensive means of preventing of post-operative adhesions

We performed a biomechanical and histological study to clarify the effect of stress enhancement on the in situ frozen-thawed patellar tendon of the rabbit as a tendon autograft model. We used 48 Japanese White rabbits divided into three groups. In group 1, the patellar tendon underwent in situ freeze-thaw treatment with liquid nitrogen to kill intrinsic fibroblasts. In group 2, after similar treatment, the medial and lateral portions were resected so that the cross-sectional area was reduced by a third. In group 3, after treatment, the cross-sectional area was reduced by a half. In groups 2 and 3, the stress in the tendon was calculated theoretically to be 150% and 200% of the physiological stress during locomotion. Eight rabbits in each group were killed at three and six weeks, respectively. At three weeks, the mean values for the tensile strength of groups 2 and 3 were 113.7% and 75.7% of that of group 1, and at six weeks 101.2% and 57.4%, respectively. The tensile strength in group 3 was significantly lower than that in groups 1 and 2. The histological findings in group 2 were similar to those in group 1, although an acellular area appeared to be wider in the core portion compared with group 1 at each period. In group 3, the collagen bundles of the tendon were less organised than those of groups 1 and 2. Our findings showed that stress enhancement affects the remodelling of the frozen-thawed patellar tendon and that excessively high stress reduces the mechanical properties of the tendon. This indicates that high stress on the patellar tendon autograft should be avoided during ligament reconstruction

We have studied the characteristics of bone ingrowth of a new porous tantalum biomaterial in a simple transcortical canine model using cylindrical implants 5 × 10 mm in size. The material was 75% to 80% porous by volume and had a repeating arrangement of slender interconnecting struts which formed a regular array of dodecahedron-shaped pores. We performed histological studies on two types of material, one with a smaller pore size averaging 430 μm at 4, 16 and 52 weeks and the other with a larger pore size averaging 650 μm at 2, 3, 4, 16 and 52 weeks. Mechanical push-out tests at 4 and 16 weeks were used to assess the shear strength of the bone-implant interface on implants of the smaller pore size. The extent of filling of the pores of the tantalum material with new bone increased from 13% at two weeks to between 42% and 53% at four weeks. By 16 and 52 weeks the average extent of bone ingrowth ranged from 63% to 80%. The tissue response to the small and large pore sizes was similar, with regions of contact between bone and implant increasing with time and with evidence of Haversian remodelling within the pores at later periods. Mechanical tests at four weeks indicated a minimum shear fixation strength of 18.5 MPa, substantially higher than has been obtained with other porous materials with less volumetric porosity. This porous tantalum biomaterial has desirable characteristics for bone ingrowth; further studies are warranted to ascertain its potential for clinical reconstructive orthopaedics

The aim of this randomised, controlled in vivo study in an ovine model was to investigate the effect of cylic pneumatic pressure on fracture healing. We performed a transverse osteotomy of the right radius in 37 sheep. They were randomised to a control group or a treatment group where they received cyclic loading of the osteotomy by the application of a pressure cuff around the muscles of the proximal forelimb. Sheep from both groups were killed at four or six weeks. Radiography, ultrasonography, biomechanical testing and histomorphometry were used to assess the differences between the groups. The area of periosteal callus, peak torsional strength, fracture stiffness, energy absorbed over the first 10° of torsion and histomorphometric analysis all showed that the osteotomies treated with the cyclic pneumatic pressure at four weeks were not significantly different from the control osteotomies at six weeks

The success of long-term transcutaneous implants depends on dermal attachment to prevent downgrowth of the epithelium and infection. Hydroxyapatite (HA) coatings and fibronectin (Fn) have independently been shown to regulate fibroblast activity and improve attachment. In an attempt to enhance this phenomenon we adsorbed Fn onto HA-coated substrates. Our study was designed to test the hypothesis that adsorption of Fn onto HA produces a surface that will increase the attachment of dermal fibroblasts better than HA alone or titanium alloy controls. . Iodinated Fn was used to investigate the durability of the protein coating and a bioassay using human dermal fibroblasts was performed to assess the effects of the coating on cell attachment. Cell attachment data were compared with those for HA alone and titanium alloy controls at one, four and 24 hours. Protein attachment peaked within one hour of incubation and the maximum binding efficiency was achieved with an initial droplet of 1000 ng. We showed that after 24 hours one-fifth of the initial Fn coating remained on the substrates, and this resulted in a significant, three-, four-, and sevenfold increase in dermal fibroblast attachment strength compared to uncoated controls at one, four and 24 hours, respectively

We report the effects of local administration of osteogenic protein-1 on the biomechanical properties of the overstretched anterior cruciate ligament in an animal model. An injury in the anterior cruciate ligament was created in 45 rabbits. They were divided into three equal groups. In group 1, no treatment was applied, in group II, phosphate-buffered saline was applied around the injured ligament, and in group III, 12.5 μg of osteogenic protein-1 mixed with phosphate-buffered saline was applied around the injured ligament. A control group of 15 rabbits was assembled from randomly-selected injured knees from among the first three groups. Each rabbit was killed at 12 weeks. The maximum load and stiffness of the anterior cruciate ligament was found to be significantly greater in group III than either group 1 (p = 0.002, p = 0.014) or group II (p = 0.032, p = 0.025). The tensile strength and the tangent modulus of fascicles from the ligament were also significantly greater in group III than either group I (p = 0.002, p = 0.0174) or II (p = 0.005, p = 0.022). The application of osteogenic protein-1 enhanced the healing in the injured anterior cruciate ligament, but compared with the control group the treated ligament remained lengthened. The administration of osteogenic protein-1 may have a therapeutic role in treating the overstretched anterior cruciate ligament

Conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and newer specific cyclo-oxygenase-2 (cox-2) inhibitors are commonly used in musculoskeletal trauma and orthopaedic surgery to reduce the inflammatory response and pain. These drugs have been reported to impair bone metabolism. In reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament the hamstring tendons are mainly used as the graft of choice, and a prerequisite for good results is healing of the tendons in the bone tunnel. Many of these patients are routinely given NSAIDs or cox-2 inhibitors, although no studies have elucidated the effects of these drugs on tendon healing in the bone tunnel. In our study 60 female Wistar rats were randomly allocated into three groups of 20. One received parecoxib, one indometacin and one acted as a control. In all the rats the tendo-Achillis was released proximally from the calf muscles. It was then pulled through a drill hole in the distal tibia and sutured anteriorly. The rats were given parecoxib, indometacin or saline intraperitoneally twice daily for seven days. After 14 days the tendon/bone-tunnel interface was subjected to mechanical testing. Significantly lower maximum pull-out strength (p < 0.001), energy absorption (p < 0.001) and stiffness (p = 0.035) were found in rats given parecoxib and indometacin compared with the control group, most pronounced with parecoxib

We investigated the effect of stimulation with a pulsed electromagnetic field on the osseointegration of hydroxyapatite in cortical bone in rabbits. Implants were inserted into femoral cortical bone and were stimulated for six hours per day for three weeks. Electromagnetic stimulation improved osseointegration of hydroxyapatite compared with animals which did not receive this treatment in terms of direct contact with the bone, the maturity of the bone and mechanical fixation. The highest values of maximum push-out force (F. max. ) and ultimate shear strength (σ. u. ) were observed in the treated group and differed significantly from those of the control group at three weeks (F. max. ; p < 0.0001; σ. u. , p < 0.0005)

The efficacy of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) loaded with bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-gene-modified bone-marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) was evaluated for the repair of experimentally-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head in goats. Bilateral early-stage osteonecrosis was induced in adult goats three weeks after ligation of the lateral and medial circumflex arteries and delivery of liquid nitrogen into the femoral head. After core decompression, porous β-TCP loaded with BMP-2 gene- or β-galactosidase (gal)-gene-transduced BMSCs was implanted into the left and right femoral heads, respectively. At 16 weeks after implantation, there was collapse of the femoral head in the untreated group but not in the BMP-2 or β-gal groups. The femoral heads in the BMP-2 group had a normal density and surface, while those in the β-gal group presented with a low density and an irregular surface. Histologically, new bone and fibrous tissue were formed in the macropores of the β-TCP. Sixteen weeks after implantation, lamellar bone had formed in the BMP-2 group, but there were some empty cavities and residual fibrous tissue in the β-gal group. The new bone volume in the BMP-2 group was significantly higher than that in the β-gal group. The maximum compressive strength and Young’s modulus of the repaired tissue in the BMP-2 group were similar to those of normal bone and significantly higher than those in the β-gal group. Our findings indicate that porous β-TCP loaded with BMP-2-gene-transduced BMSCs are capable of repairing early-stage, experimentally-induced osteonecrosis of the femoral head and of restoring its mechanical function

We investigated several factors which affect the stability of cortical screws in osteoporotic bone using 18 femora from cadavers of women aged between 45 and 96 years (mean 76). We performed bone densitometry to measure the bone mineral density of the cortical and cancellous bone of the shaft and head of the femur, respectively. The thickness and overall bone mass of the cortical layer of the shaft of the femur were measured using a microCT scanner. The force required to pull-out a 3.5 mm titanium cortical bone screw was determined after standardised insertion into specimens of the cortex of the femoral shaft. A significant correlation was found between the pull-out strength and the overall bone mass of the cortical layer (r. 2. = 0.867, p < 0.01) and also between its thickness (r. 2. = 0.826, p < 0.01) and bone mineral density (r. 2. = 0.861, p < 0.01). There was no statistically significant correlation between the age of the donor and the pull-out force (p = 0.246), the cortical thickness (p = 0.199), the bone mineral density (p = 0.697) or the level of osteoporosis (p = 0.378). We conclude that the overall bone mass, the thickness and the bone mineral density of the cortical layer, are the main factors which affect the stability of a screw in human female osteoporotic cortical bone