Background:

GeneXpert, a new, rapid molecular diagnostic test is recommended as the first line investigation for suspected pulmonary TB in areas of high HIV prevalence or drug resistance, yet it has not been validated for the diagnosis of musculoskeletal TB.

Purpose of study:

The question of prolonged bracing following injury in patients diagnosed with SCIWORA remains controversial. Proponents of the ‘Segmental Spinal Instability’ hypothesis claim that there is occult ligamentous injury leading to instability and a risk of recurrent injury. Published reports of recurrent SCIWORA involve patients with minor, transient neurological symptoms and normal MRI findings. The contradicting ‘differential stretch hypothesis’ is based on the premise that the spinal column will deform elastically, exceeding the elastic deforming potential of the more fragile spinal cord, but will return to its baseline stability. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the need for bracing in patients with SCIWORA based on MRI evidence of instability.

Purpose of the study

To evaluate the outcome of the Modified French osteotomy for the correction of cubitus varus resulting from a supracondylar distal humerus fracture in children.

Aim

To determine the preferable treatment for congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia, we retrospectively reviewed 19 patients (20 limbs) treated consecutively over a 22 year period (1988–2007). Fifteen were followed up to maturity. The patients were assessed for union, leg length discrepancy (LLD), ankle valgus, range of ankle movement and distal tibial physeal injury.

Purpose of the Study:

Spontaneous intraarticular haemorrhages are the most frequent bleeding episodes encountered in the haemophiliac population, causing pain, joint deformity and arthropathy. Chronic haemophiliac arthropathy is characterised by persistent joint swelling, proliferative synovitis, and damage to or loss of articular cartilage. Elimination of the synovitis is the key to prevention of recurrent intraarticular haemorrhages and joint damage. The purpose of the study was to investigate the indications for, and outcome of, radioactive synoviorthesis for haemophiliac arthropathy.

Purpose of study

Serial manipulations and casting for the treatment of congenital clubfoot has long been the practice internationally. There are, however, a great variety of manipulative techniques being practiced with differing results. We aim to determine how the rate of major surgery, ie. a full posteromedial-release (PMR), as initial surgical intervention has changed since introducing the Ponseti method of plastering at our centre in 2002. We also aim to determine whether pre-operative radiographs have any bearing on the type of surgery performed.

Purpose

Distal metaphyseal radial fractures are common in the paediatric population and the management of these fractures is controversial. The incidence of re-displacement in the closed management of these fractures is as much as 30% in some studies. Various methods have been described with the view to predict fracture displacement of distal radial fractures in children. One of these indices is the three point index (TPI). This index seeks to assess the adequacy of 3 point moulding and thus predict fracture displacement. It is a calculated ratio that if above 0.8 states that there is an increased risk of fracture re-displacement. The purpose of this study is to assess the accuracy of this index in predicting displacement of distal radial fractures in children.

Single screw fixation for the management of slipped upper femoral epiphysis (SUFE) was introduced in 1984 and has been reported to have less chondrolysis and avascular necrosis (AVN) than previous methods using multiple pin fixation or osteotomy (Ward 1992). Two groups of patients were investigated. The first group of 55 hips (44 patients) were treated over a 27 year period (1963–1989). Forty four hips were treated with multiple pins and 11 hips with primary intra- or extracapsular osteotomy. These patients were followed up for an average of 8 years (3–27yrs). The second group of 88 hips (69 patients) were treated over a 6 year period (1999–2004). All were treated with single screw fixation and followed up for at least one year.

The duration and severity of slip were found to be similar for both groups. In the second group 16 hips (20%) were unstable (unable to walk even with crutches). Instability had not been coined as a term in the first group. All serial radiographs were retrospectively reviewed for AVN and chondrolysis and correlated with clinical findings. In the first group AVN occurred in 8 hips (14.5%). Five (9%) were due to osteotomies, two (3.5%) due to manipulation and one (2%) due to pinning in the superior quadrant. Chondrolysis occurred in 14 hips (25%); eight (14%) at presentation and six (11%) due to persistent pin penetration. In the second group AVN occurred in two hips (2%). Both were unstable. Two of 16 unstable hips (12.5%) developed AVN. Chondrolysis occurred in 6 hips (7%); four (4.5%) at presentation and 2 (2.5%) due to persistent pin penetration.

The authors conclude that single screw fixation is a safer technique than multiple pin fixation or osteotomy. AVN only occurred in unstable slips. Chondrolysis due to pin penetration is significantly reduced.

Forearm lengthening in children is controversial. Paley (1990) and Peterson (1994) advocate aggressive treatment of the deformity for cosmetic and functional reasons. Scoenecker (1997) has shown that mature patients are comfortable with their appearance and functional deficit.

We reviewed 8 forearm lengthenings performed in 8 children in the 14 year period from 1991 to 2004. Five patients had ulnar shortening (osteochondromata = 4, growth arrest due to trauma = 1). Of the three patients with radial shortening, one was due to a congenital short radius and two following growth arrest (post trauma and meningococcal septicemia). The shortening resulted in a cosmetically unacceptable ulnar or radial tilt with absent radial or ulnar deviation of the wrist and decreased supination and/or pronation. One patient with a proximal ulnar osteochondroma had a dislocation of the radial head with cubitus varus.

Excision of the osteochondroma was done 6 months prior to lengthening. Lengthening was accomplished with two Ilizarov rings and a distal corticotomy for radial and proximal for ulnar shortening. Reduction of the dislocated radial head was achieved with an olive wire. Associated procedures were: hemiepiphyseal stapling of the distal radius for an increased radial articular angle in 3 patients with osteochondroma, and corrective osteotomy of the distal radius in 1 patient with growth arrest. The average lengthening obtained was 23 mm (range 13–40 mm) with an average lengthening index of 1.45 months per cm.

At an average follow-up of six years (range 2–15 years; 7 to maturity) all patients were satisfied with the cosmetic improvement and had full radial and ulnar deviation. Except for two patients the supination/pronation was improved. We concluded the forearm lengthening is warranted for cosmetic and functional reasons.

Physeal bar resection for partial growth plate arrest was first described by Langenskjold in 1967. The initial enthusiasm by Peterson (1989) who found that 83% of patients resumed physeal growth was tempered by Birch (1992) who only had 33% success. Poor results were due to failure to resume growth or premature growth arrest.

We retrospectively reviewed 21 physeal bar resections performed in 19 children from 1987 to 2003. The average age at surgery was 8.2 years (range 3–12 years). The aetiology of the physeal arrest was : growth plate fracture (8), meningococcal septicaemia (5), osteitis (3; 2 neonatal), dysplasia (3), gunshot (1) and idiopathic (1). The commonest site was the distal femur (12; 5 due to growth plate fracture), followed by the proximal tibia (5; 3 due to meningococcal septicaemia), and the distal tibia (4; 2 due to growth plate fractures). Assessment of the size and location of the bar was with biplanar tomography in 7, MRI in 5 and both in 7. We found equal accuracy with both modalities, but currently prefer MRI. The bar was plotted on an anterior-posterior and lateral map of the growth plate. The average size of the bar was 25% (range 15 to 50%) of the area of the growth plate. Only 3 bars were larger than 30%. Fifteen of the bars were peripheral, 5 linear and 1 central.

Results were classified poor if there was no resumption of growth or if premature growth plate arrest occurred, good if there was resumption of growth which continued to maturity or to follow-up, and excellent if the growth exceeded the expected growth. There were 5 (24%) poor results; all failed to resume growth. Three bars exceeded 30% and 2 were due to meningococcal septicaemia. The remaining 16 bars were followed up for a range of 2 to 12 years; 10 to maturity. Four (19%) had an excellent and 12 (57%) had a good result.

The authors conclude that physeal bar resection is a worthwhile procedure if the size of the bar is equal to or less than 30% of the area of the growth plate. In growth arrest due to meningococcal septicaemia we only had a 60% success rate.

Tarsal coalition has been well recognized as the commonest cause of peroneal spastic flat feet in children and adolescents (Mosier and Asher 1984). Other rare causes are tuberculosis and rheumatoid arthritis. If no etiology can be found the term idiopathic peroneal spastic flat foot has been coined by Schoenecker (2000).

We prospectively assessed all children and adolescents with peroneal spastic flat feet seen at our clinic in the period 2002 to 2004. Twelve patients (17 feet) were assessed. The average age was 11,9 years (range10 to15years). Seventy five percent of the patients were above the 95th percentile weight for age. Screening for tuberculosis (ESR, Mantoux and chest radiograph) was negative in all patients. Rheumatoid factor was positive in one patient with juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA). Radiology was standardized. Plain radiographs were standing lateral and 45 degree oblique views. CT and MRI:

axial: parallel to plantar surface;

This latter view best illustrates a talocalcaneal coalition (Newman 2000).

Two patients (four feet) had a calcaneonavicular coalition on the 45 degree oblique plane radiographs. This was also shown on the axial CT and MRI views. No talocalcaneal coalition was visualized on the coronal oblique CT and MRI views. In order to find a diagnosis and to confirm the accuracy of the MRI and CT, the middle facet of the talocalcaneal joint was explored in eight feet and a synovial biopsy done. No talocalcaneal coalition was found. JIA was histologically confirmed in one patient.

The authors concluded that the idiopathic type is by far the commonest peroneal spastic flat foot seen in our clinic. The 45 degree oblique plain radiograph is as accurate as axial CT and MRI to diagnose calcaneonavicular coalition. The coronal oblique CT and MRI views are equally accurate to exclude a talocalcaneal coalition.

Over the five years 1997 and 2001 we evaluated five children (age range 10 to 14 years) with pathological femoral fractures due to rickets. All had quadriplegic cerebral palsy, and all were at home rather than in institutions. Four had been on long-term anticonvulsant therapy (ACT).

Radiographs showed typical features of rickets, with osteopoenia, cupping of metaphyses and widened growth plates. Biochemical analysis showed mean serum calcium of 1.87 mmol/l (1.71 to 2.2 – the normal range is 2.05 to 2.64), mean serum phosphate of 0.6 mmol/l (0.3 to 0.98 – the normal range is 1.0 to 1.85), and mean alkaline phosphatase of 1272 IU/l (414 to 2135 – normally less than 360).

The fractures were treated with Thomas splint traction or spica immobilisation. The rickets was treated with daily vitamin D (4000 IU) and calcium (1000 mg) for 3 months. The rickets healed radiologically at 2 months and the fractures united at 3 months.

For long-term prophylaxis a multifactorial therapeutic approach was adopted, entailing increasing exposure to sunlight, increasing dairy product intake, and changing the ACT to sodium valproate, which is less enzyme-inducing. No vitamin D supplementation was given.

At a mean follow-up of 3 years (2 to 8) no further fractures had occurred, and radiology and biochemistry were normal.

We reviewed 600 children with 640 sites of acute haematogenous osteomyelitis treated between 1983 and 2002. Neonates and patients with septicaemia were excluded.

The mean age of the children was 7 years (3 months to 13 years). The male to female ratio was 2.3:1.

The diagnosis was made clinically and with the help of special investigations. The while cell count was elevated in 75% and the ESR in 98%. Blood cultures were positive in 79%. Radiographs showed metaphyseal rarefaction and/or periosteal reaction in 19% and isotope scan was positive in 43%. No aspiration was done to establish the diagnosis. In nine sites (1.5% of operated sites) the diagnosis was regarded as incorrect (no growth or subsequent bony changes on radiographs).

The distal femur was the most common site (25%), followed by the distal tibia (20%), proximal tibia (19%), proximal femur (7%), proximal humerus (5%), forearm (5%), distal fibula (4%), pelvis (4%), calcaneum (3%) and other (8%). Staphylococcus aureus was cultured in 89% of sites.

Treatment was with intravenous cloxacillin, followed by oral flucloxacillin for 6 weeks. Surgery was performed at 94.5% of sites. The 5.5% sites that were not operated upon were in the pelvis or were early limb sites with no swelling. At surgery, 21% of sites were found to have intra-osseous pus. In the remaining 79%, there was subperiosteal pus at 41% of sites and extraperiosteal pus at 38%. Patients were followed up until adequate bone stock was present on radiographs and no sinus or sequestrum was present. Poor results (sequestrum and/ or pathological fracture) occurred in 8.3% (53 sites). Poor results were not site-specific, but 99% occurred in patients with subperiosteal or extraperiosteal pus.

We reviewed 821 children with 869 sites of septic arthritis treated from 1983 to 2002. Neonates and patients with septicaemia and penetrating injuries were excluded.

There were two age groups: 46% of the children were two years or younger (mean 1.1 years) and 54% were between 3 and 12 years (mean 6.8 years). The male to female ratio was 1.7:1.

The diagnosis was made clinically and with the help of special investigations. The white cell count was elevated in 67% and the ESR in 96%. Blood culture was positive in 28%. Radiographs demonstrated widening of joint spaces in 19% and isotope bone scan was positive in 11% of sites, mainly in the hip. No diagnostic joint aspiration was done. In 42 sites (4.6%) the diagnosis was regarded as incorrect because there was no growth or white cells.

The most common site of septic arthritis was the knee (37%), followed by the hip (30%), ankle (14%), elbow (10%), shoulder (5%), wrist (3%) and subtalar joint (1%).

Treatment was with open arthrotomy and antibiotics (cloxacillin and/or ampicillin). Bacteriologically the most common finding was no growth (50% in each age group). In the younger group the most common finding was Haemophilus influenzae (24.5%). Staphylococcus aureus was found in 37% of the older group. From 2000 the incidence of H. influenzae declined, probably owing to the introduction of vaccine in 1998.

Results at 30 sites (3.5%) were poor. There was avascular necrosis in 18 hips, chondrolysis in five hips and three ankles, and stiffness in two knees, an ankle and a subtalar joint.

Further analysis showed that poor results were more likely to occur in older patients with S. aureus and where there was a delay in treatment. Where good results were achieved, the mean delay was 3.5 days. It was 9.3 days where results were poor.

We retrospectively reviewed the clinical notes and radiographs of children with proven non-accident injury (NAI) who had sustained long bone fractures between 1997 and 2002, and compared them to the clinical and radiological appearances of 32 osteogenisis imperfecta (OI) patients, seen over the last 20 years, who sustained fractures before the age of one year.

In the five-year period, 501 children had NAI. Sexual abuse was involved in 35%, soft tissue injuries in 31%, head injuries in 26% and long bone fractures in 3.6% (18 children). The mean age of these 18 children was 11 months. Six had more than one fracture, and there were 29 fractures (15 femora, five humeri, three elbows, two forearms, two clavicles and two tibiae). Fifty-seven percent of fractures were diaphyseal and 43% were metaphyseal. There were only three metaphyseal buckle or corner lesions (distal femur). In none of these children were there radiological features of osseous fragility, i.e., osteopoenia, anterolateral bowing of the femur and tibia and gracile bones (thin bones with thin cortices).

Of the 32 OA patients, 23 were Sillence type I. There was a positive family history in 84% and 95% had blue sclera and Wormian bones. One patient was unclassifiable. All OI patients had fractures in the first year of life, 38% of them occurring perinatally. All had femoral fractures, with or without other fractures, and 90% were diaphyseal. Two or more features of osseous fragility were present in all type-III and 20 type-I patients. Three type-I patients and the unclassifiable patient had osteopoenia only, without bowing or gracile bones. Howeve, three of the four had a positive family history and all had blue sclera and Wormian bones.

In all patients, the differential diagnosis between NAI and OI could be made radiologically. The family history, blue sclera and Wormian bones were adjuncts.

After tuberculosis of the spine, hip and knee, tuberculosis of the foot and ankle is the most common occurring area of skeletal tuberculosis seen in our unit. We retrospectively reviewed 14 patients (14 feet and/or ankles) seen over the 16-year period 1982 to 1997.

The average age of the children was 5.2 years (range 1.5 to 11 years). The duration of symptoms ranged from 1 week to 1 year. The most common presentation was swelling and pain of the involved joint, but three patients each presented with a chronic discharging sinus after being drained elsewhere as an acute abscess. Radiographs revealed osteo-penia with or without lytic areas, joint margin destruction or joint space narrowing. The average sedimentation rate (ESR) was 52.3 mm/hour (range 9 to 120). The Mantoux test was positive in 13 out of the 14 patients. Chest x-rays demonstrated latent or active tuberculosis in 50% of patients. Open biopsy was performed in all patients. Hypertrophic synovium was found in all cases except one, where atrophic tuberculosis with joint space narrowing was present. A positive diagnosis of tuberculosis was made in all cases, either by demonstrating caseating granulomatous tissue on histology, or by growing a positive culture for mycobacterium tuberculosis or both. Histology was positive in 86%, acid-fast bacteria were seen in 28.5% and a positive culture was obtained in 82% of the patients.

At an average follow up of 7.4 years (range 1 to 17 years) all patients were assessed both clinically and radiologically. Patients with lytic lesions and destruction of joint margins reconstituted well radiologically, had a good clinical outcome with a good range of movement of the affected joint, however the one patient with atrophic tuberculosis remained with a narrowed joint space, stiffness and a poor clinical result compared to the rest.

We retrospectively reviewed 10 children treated for tuberculosis of the elbow over a 21-year period from 1979 to 1999.

The mean age at diagnosis was 5.5 years (1 to 11). The median duration of symptoms was 10 weeks (l week to 18 months). The patients presented mainly with swelling of the elbow joint due to synovitis. Radiological appearances of the elbow at presentation were assessed according to Kerri and Martini’s classification. One elbow was stage I (osteopoenia), eight were stage II (osteopoenia and erosions) and one stage III (joint space narrowing).

Open biopsy was performed on all patients. There was positive histology (caseating granuloma) and/or positive culture in eight patients. Of the two patients with non-specific histology and negative culture, one was found on chest radiograph to have tuberculosis involvement and the other healed on anti-tuberculosis therapy. All patients were treated with rifampicin, isoniazide and pyrazinamide for nine months. No synovectomy was done. Postoperatively all patients were immobilised in a backslab and then actively mobilised.

At a mean follow-up of three years (1 to 10), patients were assessed according to a modification of Kerri and Martini’s classification. Seven of the eight stage-I or stage-II patients had an excellent result (full range of movement) or good result (loss of less than 30% of range of movement). One stage-II patient had a fair result (loss of range of movement of 30% to 50%). The stage-III patient had a poor result (loss of more than 50% of range of movement).

We concluded that elbows with stage-I and stage-II disease (synovitis) have a good outcome. Anti-tuberculosis chemotherapy is effective in the treatment of stage-I and stage II disease. Synovectomy is unnecessary.

To assess the role of pelvic osteotomy during the closure of bladder and cloacal exstrophy, we retrospectively reviewed 10 patients treated from 1990 to 1999.

Six patients had cloacal exstrophy and four had bladder exstrophy. Two patients had no primary osteotomy. Two had posterior, two anterior pubic and two midiliac oblique osteotomies. Osteotomies were performed at a median age of 5.3 weeks.

The mean follow-up time was five years (2 to 11). We assessed facilitation of closure, reconstitution of pelvic anatomy, maintenance of interpubic distance (IPD), urinary continence and gait.

All osteotomies facilitated soft tissue closure at the time of surgery. Subjectively, the best restoration of pelvic anatomy was with a midiliac oblique osteotomy. In all patients, IPD increased progressively with increasing age (mean pre-operatively 3.3 cm, postoperatively 1.9 cm and 5.0 cm at follow-up).

The results of soft tissue surgery to provide continence and maintain abdominal wall closure were poor. All procedures to address incontinence failed and there was a 100% dehiscence/sepsis rate. Although half the children had increased external rotation of the hip at review, only one child had an externally rotated joint. .