Cartilage repair in terms of replacement, or regeneration of damaged or diseased articular cartilage with functional tissue, is the ‘holy grail’ of joint surgery. A wide spectrum of strategies for cartilage repair currently exists and several of these techniques have been reported to be associated with successful clinical outcomes for appropriately selected indications. However, based on respective advantages, disadvantages, and limitations, no single strategy, or even combination of strategies, provides surgeons with viable options for attaining successful long-term outcomes in the majority of patients. As such, development of novel techniques and optimisation of current techniques need to be, and are, the focus of a great deal of research from the basic science level to clinical trials. Translational research that bridges scientific discoveries to clinical application involves the use of animal models in order to assess safety and efficacy for regulatory approval for human use. This review article provides an overview of animal models for cartilage repair. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;4:89–94

Tendinopathy is a debilitating musculoskeletal condition which can cause significant pain and lead to complete rupture of the tendon, which often requires surgical repair. Due in part to the large spectrum of tendon pathologies, these disorders continue to be a clinical challenge. Animal models are often used in this field of research as they offer an attractive framework to examine the cascade of processes that occur throughout both tendon pathology and repair. This review discusses the structural, mechanical, and biological changes that occur throughout tendon pathology in animal models, as well as strategies for the improvement of tendon healing. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:193–202

Objectives. The treatment of osteoporotic fractures is a major challenge, and the enhancement of healing is critical as a major goal in modern fracture management. Most osteoporotic fractures occur at the metaphyseal bone region but few models exist and the healing is still poorly understood. A systematic review was conducted to identify and analyse the appropriateness of current osteoporotic metaphyseal fracture animal models. Materials and Methods. A literature search was performed on the Pubmed, Embase, and Web of Science databases, and relevant articles were selected. A total of 19 studies were included. Information on the animal, induction of osteoporosis, fracture technique, site and fixation, healing results, and utility of the model were extracted. Results. Fracture techniques included drill hole defects (3 of 19), bone defects (3 of 19), partial osteotomy (1 of 19), and complete osteotomies (12 of 19). Drill hole models and incomplete osteotomy models are easy to perform and allow the study of therapeutic agents but do not represent the usual clinical setting. Additionally, biomaterials can be filled into drill hole defects for analysis. Complete osteotomy models are most commonly used and are best suited for the investigation of therapeutic drugs or noninvasive interventions. The metaphyseal defect models allow the study of biomaterials, which are associated with complex and comminuted osteoporotic fractures. Conclusion. For a clinically relevant model, we propose that an animal model should satisfy the following criteria to study osteoporotic fracture healing: 1) induction of osteoporosis, 2) complete osteotomy or defect at the metaphysis unilaterally, and 3) internal fixation. Cite this article: R. M. Y. Wong, M. H. V. Choy, M. C. M. Li, K-S. Leung, S. K-H. Chow, W-H. Cheung, J. C. Y. Cheng. A systematic review of current osteoporotic metaphyseal fracture animal models. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:6–11. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.71.BJR-2016-0334.R2

Objectives. The primary purpose of this meta-analysis was to determine whether statin usage could reduce the risk of glucocorticoid-related osteonecrosis in animal models. Methods. A systematic literature search up to May 2015 was carried out using the PubMed, Ovid, EBM reviews, ISI Web of Science, EBSCO, CBM, CNKI databases with the term and boolean operators: statins and osteonecrosis in all fields. Risk ratio (RR), as the risk estimate of specific outcome, was calculated along with 95% confidence intervals (CI). The methodological quality of individual studies was assessed using a quantitative tool based on the updated Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable (STAIR) recommendations. Results. A total of 11 eligible studies were included according to predetermined criteria. The pooled data demonstrated that animals with statin usage, either alone or combined with other treatments, were at a decreased risk of developing glucocorticoid-related osteonecrosis (RR = 2.06, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.71 to 2.50). Moreover, subgroup analysis revealed that compared with statins alone, statins combined with other treatments significantly decreased the risk of osteonecrosis (RR = 1.23, 95% CI 1.02 to 1.47). However, we could find no significant risk difference for different gender, or for different time points. Conclusions. The present study suggests that statins combined with other treatments are efficient in preventing the development of glucocorticoid-related osteonecrosis in animals. These results might shed light on clinical practice when glucocorticoids are prescribed, and could be further investigated in high-quality clinical trials. Cite this article: Z. Yang, H. Liu, D. Li, X. Xie, T. Qin, J. Ma, P. Kang. The efficacy of statins in preventing glucocorticoid-related osteonecrosis in animal models: A meta-analysis. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:393–402. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.59.2000500

Objectives. We studied subchondral intraosseous pressure (IOP) in an animal model during loading, and with vascular occlusion. We explored bone compartmentalization by saline injection. Materials and Methods. Needles were placed in the femoral condyle and proximal tibia of five anaesthetized rabbits and connected to pressure recorders. The limb was loaded with and without proximal vascular occlusion. An additional subject had simultaneous triple recordings at the femoral head, femoral condyle and proximal tibia. In a further subject, saline injections at three sites were carried out in turn. Results. Loading alone caused a rise in subchondral IOP from 11.7 mmHg (. sd. 7.1) to 17.9 mmHg (. sd. 8.1; p < 0.0002). During arterial occlusion, IOP fell to 5.3 mmHg (. sd. 4.1), then with loading there was a small rise to 7.6 mmHg (. sd. 4.5; p < 0.002). During venous occlusion, IOP rose to 20.2 mmHg (. sd. 5.8), and with loading there was a further rise to 26.3 mmHg (. sd. 6.3; p < 0.003). The effects were present at three different sites along the limb simultaneously. Saline injections showed pressure transmitted throughout the length of the femur but not across the knee joint. Conclusion. This is the first study to report changes in IOP in vivo during loading and with combinations of vascular occlusion and loading. Intraosseous pressure is not a constant. It is reduced during proximal arterial occlusion and increased with proximal venous occlusion. Whatever the perfusion state, in vivo load is transferred partly by hydraulic pressure. We propose that joints act as hydraulic pressure barriers. An understanding of subchondral physiology may be important in understanding osteoarthritis and other bone diseases. Cite this article: M. Beverly, S. Mellon, J. A. Kennedy, D. W. Murray. Intraosseous pressure during loading and with vascular occlusion in an animal model. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:511–516. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.78.BJR-2017-0343.R2

Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2022;11(8):514–517.

Aim. Treatment of infected and non-infected non-unions remain a major challenge after orthopedic fracture-related surgery. In clinical practice, several revision surgeries are usually required, including a radical debridement and exchange of implants, to control or even eradicate the infection to finally achieve bone healing. However, a clear treatment algorithm in clinical practice may be difficult to follow due to the heterogeneous patient population. Thus, so controlled settings for research purposes is better achieved in standardized animal studies. So far, there exists no multi-stage animal model that can be realistically transferred to the clinical situation in humans. The importance of such a model is obvious in order to be able to investigate different therapy concepts for infected and non-infected non unions. Methods. In 20 female Sprague-Dawley rats, a critical size defect by a femur osteotomy with 5 mm width was done. The periosteum at the fracture zone was cauterized proximal and distal to the osteotomy to achieve an hypovascularized situation. After randomization, 10 animals were intramedullary infected with a multisensible Staph. aureus strain (10. 3. CFU). After 5 weeks, a second surgery was performed with removing the K-wire, debridement of the osteotomy-gap and re-osteosynthesis with an angle-stable plate. After further 8 weeks all rats were euthanized and underwent biomechanical testing to evaluate bone consolidation or delayed union, respectively. Additional micro-CT analysis, histological, and histomorphometric analysis were done to evaluate bone consolidation or delayed union, respectively, by the score of Lane and Sandhu and to quantify callus formation and the mineralized area of the callus. Results. 5 weeks after the first surgery a non-union had formed in all septic and aseptic animals. According to the Lane and Sandhu score a significantly higher callus formation was found in the infected group. In all infected animals, the inoculated Staph. aureus strain was detected during the revision surgery. 8 weeks after the second surgery no bone healing could be detected in the µ-CT analysis in both groups and biomechanical testing showed a significant lower maximum torque in both groups as compared to the untreated contralateral femura. Conclusion. Here we show first results of a new two-stage pseudarthrosis animal model, which reflects a very realistic clinical situation of an infection-related non-union model. Based on this model, various therapeutic strategies in the treatment of infectious and non-infectious pseudarthrosis, such as the use of bone substitutes, can be evaluated in further studies

Objectives. Our objective in this article is to test the hypothesis that type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a factor in the onset and progression of osteoarthritis, and to characterise the quality of the articular cartilage in an appropriate rat model. Methods. T2DM rats were obtained from the UC Davis group and compared with control Lewis rats. The diabetic rats were sacrificed at ages from six to 12 months, while control rats were sacrificed at six months only. Osteoarthritis severity was determined via histology in four knee quadrants using the OARSI scoring guide. Immunohistochemical staining was also performed as a secondary form of osteoarthritic analysis. Results. T2DM rats had higher mean osteoarthritis scores than the control rats in each of the four areas that were analysed. However, only the results at the medial and lateral femur and medial tibia were significant. Cysts were also found in T2DM rats at the junction of the articular cartilage and subchondral bone. Immunohistochemical analysis does not show an increase in collagen II between control and T2DM rats. Mass comparisons also showed a significant relationship between mass and osteoarthritis score. Conclusions. T2DM was found to cause global degeneration in the UCD rat knee joints, suggesting that diabetes itself is a factor in the onset and progression of osteoarthritis. The immunohistochemistry stains showed little to no change in collagen II degeneration between T2DM and control rats. Overall, it seems that the animal model used is pertinent to future studies of T2DM in the development and progression of osteoarthritis. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:203–11

Purpose: To investigate the effect of pressurizing vertebral bodies during vertebroplasty using different materials in the development of fat embolism (FE) and any associated cardiovascular changes. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is the material of choice for vertebroplasty (VP). However, PMMA has several disadvantages such as exothermic curing, uncertain long-term biomechanical effects and biocompatibility. As a result alternative materials are being developed to overcome these problems. In order to determine the role of PMMA in the generation of cardiovascular changes following vertebroplasty we compared injection of cement with wax in an animal model. Method: In twenty sheep, four vertebral bodies were augmented either with PMMA or bone wax. Heart rate, arterial, central venous and pulmonary artery pressure, cardiac output and blood gas values were recorded. At postmortem the lungs were subjected to histological evaluation. Results: The consecutive augmentation of four vertebral bodies with PMMA induced cumulative fat embolism causing significant deterioration of baseline mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) and blood gas values. Injection of bone wax resulted in similar cardiovascular changes and amount of intravascular fat in the lungs. Conclusion: In this animal model cardiovascular complications during multiple VP happen regardless of the augmentation material used. The deteriorating baseline MABP during VP is associated with the pressurization and displacement of bone marrow/fat into the circulation rather than caused by polymethylmethacrylate

To investigate the effect of pressurizing vertebral bodies during vertebroplasty using different materials in the development of fat embolism (FE) and any associated cardiovascular changes. Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is the material of choice for vertebroplasty (VP). However, PMMA has several disadvantages such as exothermic curing, uncertain long-term biomechanical effects and biocompatibility. As a result alternative materials are being developed to overcome these problems. In order to determine the role of PMMA in the generation of cardiovascular changes following vertebroplasty we compared injection of cement with wax in an animal model. In twenty sheep, four vertebral bodies were augmented either with PMMA or bone wax. Heart rate, arterial, central venous and pulmonary artery pressure, cardiac output and blood gas values were recorded. At postmortem the lungs were subjected to histological evaluation. The consecutive augmentation of four vertebral bodies with PMMA induced cumulative fat embolism causing significant deterioration of baseline mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) and blood gas values. Injection of bone wax resulted in similar cardiovascular changes and amount of intravascular fat in the lungs. Conclusion: In this animal model cardiovascular complications during multiple VP happen regardless of the augmentation material used. The deteriorating baseline MABP during VP is associated with the pressurization and displacement of bone marrow/fat into the circulation rather than caused by polymethylmethacrylate

Costoplasty remains useful in the treatment of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, rib hump and associated chest wall deformities. However traditional costoplasty increases morbidity and blood loss. We examine the feasibility and possible effectiveness of a more conservative costoplasty using an animal model. 4 fresh half Ovine rib cages from separate animals were obtained, stored at +4 °C and warmed to room temperature before testing. Each rib cage was randomly assigned to group 1, 2, 3 or 4. Ribs 2–10 were dissected out for testing. The ribs then underwent stepwise deconstruction according to their group. Beginning at the convexity, removing first the convex cortex, then the cancellous, then the cranial and caudal cortices to leave just the concave cortex. Testing for stiffness was by three-point bending on the concave side of each rib with the rib fixed at the head of the rib and 5 cm from the resected area. The ribs were deformed at a constant rate of 0.5 mm.sec . −. 1 up to a maximum load of 9.99 kg or until fracturing. Then stress was plotted against strain to find the Young's modulus of each group and statistics carried out with an ANOVA test. The ribs in each group were as follows: Group 1= control, group 2= 30 mm long convex side cortical bone removed 10 mm from lateral tubercle, group 3= convex, cortical and cancellous bone removal and group 4= removal of convex, caudal and cranial cortices with cancellous removal. The Young's Modulus of the groups were: 1= 3.38 N-m (+/− 0.84), 2= 2.65 N-m (+/− 1.58), 3= 1.55 N-m (+/− 0.55) and 4= 0.74 N-m (+/− 0.55). Groups 3 and 4 were significantly less stiff than group 1 (p< 0.01.) No ribs in groups 1, 2 and 4 fractured under the maximum load. 5/8 ribs in group 3 fractured before the maximum load was administered. By deconstructing the rib down to only the concave side it becomes significantly more flexible by approximately 4.5 times than the control Ribs. Coupled with its increase in flexibility it still retains its ability to withstand up to 10 kg of load without fracture. It may be possible to perform a costoplasty whilst preserving ventilatory integrity. This may improve rib hump correction, and curve correction due to increased flexibility of the stiff thoracic cage

In vivo animal experimentation has been one of the cornerstones of biological and biomedical research, particularly in the field of clinical medicine and pharmaceuticals. The conventional in vivo model system is invariably associated with high production costs and strict ethical considerations. These limitations led to the evolution of an ex vivo model system which partially or completely surmounted some of the constraints faced in an in vivo model system. The ex vivo rodent bone culture system has been used to elucidate the understanding of skeletal physiology and pathophysiology for more than 90 years. This review attempts to provide a brief summary of the historical evolution of the rodent bone culture system with emphasis on the strengths and limitations of the model. It encompasses the frequency of use of rats and mice for ex vivo bone studies, nutritional requirements in ex vivo bone growth and emerging developments and technologies. This compilation of information could assist researchers in the field of regenerative medicine and bone tissue engineering towards a better understanding of skeletal growth and development for application in general clinical medicine. Cite this article: A. A. Abubakar, M. M. Noordin, T. I. Azmi, U. Kaka, M. Y. Loqman. The use of rats and mice as animal models in ex vivo bone growth and development studies. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:610–618. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.512.BJR-2016-0102.R2

Objectives: Development a giant cell tumor model arising from the mutated mesenchymal cells present in its stroma. This establishes the pathogenic mechanism of giant cell tumor, and allows the evaluation of the possible role of biphosphonates and retinoic acid in medical therapy of giant cell tumor of bone. Introduction: In previous studies our group has shown that mesenchymal stroma contains mesenchymal cells capable of recruiting osteoclasts, and lacking capacity to undergo osteoblastic differentiation. These cells represent the actual neoplastic component of the tumor. In the current study, an attempt was made to establish a giant cell tumor in an animal model by injection of these cells. Methods: 6 Balb/C named mice were used. The mice were kept in a laminar flow hood and injected when they were 4 weeks old. The injection was in an intra-osseous location into the distal femur. The cell inoculum consisted of 1 million stromal cells. The cells were derived from a grade III giant cell tumor occurring in the hip joint of a 30 years old woman. The mice were kept for 2 months and than sacrificed. Results: A lytic lesion similar to that occurring in humans developed. The tumor consisted of stromal cells with interspersed osteoclasts. These were identified as being of host origin by mice-specific monoclonal antibodies. The tumor penetrated the cortex but did not infiltrate the articular cartilage. Metastases were not observed. Discussion: Giant cell tumor of bone is typified by osteolytic bone destruction mediated by osteoclasts. In previous studies, our group has shown that the proliferation rate of the stromal component correlates closely with prognosis and grade of the tumor. The stromal component was shown to consist of pre-osteoblasts that fail to differentiate into osteoblasts, but instead recruit giant cells (osteoclasts), mediating bone destruction. Addition of retinoic acid in culture induces osteoblastogenesis cells by blocking AP-1. The current study confirms in an animal model that indeed the stromal cells are capable of osteoclast recruitment and bone destruction. This animal model might allow development of medical remedies to this tumor

Background: Aseptic loosening of total joint arthroplasty is characterised by osteolysis caused by osteoclasts and macrophages. Osteolysis occurs by acidification and dissolution of hydroxyapatite crystals then proteolysis of the bone collagen matrix. N-Telopeptide (NTx) and deoxypyridinolone (DPD) represent highly specific markers for bone resorption. Aim: To investigate whether urinary NTx and DPD generated in-vivo can be used as bone markers in a small animal model of wear debris induced osteolysis. Materials and Methods: 41 and 38 urinary samples were collected from mice at autopsy four weeks following either the implantation of clinically relevant ceramic particles or sham surgery into their femora and assayed for NTx and DPD respectively. Bone markers were corrected for urinary creatinine. Results: The mean urinary NTx concentration for mice that underwent the implantation of clinically relevant ceramic particles was 95.0 nM BCE/mM creatinine compared to 85.3 nM BCE/mM creatinine for mice who had sham surgery (p = 0.8, 95%CI: −29.0 to 30.7). The mean urinary DPD concentration for mice that underwent the implantation of clinically relevant ceramic particles was 5.3 nM DPD/mM creatinine compared to 4.0 nM DPD/ mM creatinine for mice who had sham surgery (p = 0.07, 95%CI: −2.8 to 1.4). Conclusion: The absolute values of NTx and DPD increased in mice that underwent the implantation of clinically relevant ceramic particles compared to sham surgery even though this was not statistically significant. Extending the post operative interval might allow both NTx and DPD to be utilised as bone markers of osteolysis in our small animal model of aseptic loosening

Summary. Osteoporosis reduces particle-induced osteolysis in rat model. Introduction. Wear particle induced osteolysis is considered to be a vital factor that reduces the life span of joint prosthesis. Osteoporosis is not rare in patients with indication for arthroplasty. However, the influence of osteoporosis on wear particles induced osteolysis is not clear. This study is aimed to explore on this issue by using animal model. Methods. 42 female Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats aged 6 months were randomly divided into 3 groups: A, B and C group. Group A and B contained 18 rats each, and group C contained 6 rats. The rats in group A underwent bilateral ovariectomy. Group B was normal control, and group C was sham control. After 3 months, 6 rats in group A, 6 rats in group B and all the rats of group C were sacrificed. Bone mineral density (BMD), μCT and bone histomorphometry were conducted. The rest of rats in group A were randomly divided into 2 groups: group A1 and group A2, and so were the rats in group B. 5mg titanium particles were implanted onto the calvaria of groups A1 and B1, and isometric PBS solution were injected to group A2 and B2. Calvaria were harvested after 14 days. Calvaria were analyzed by μCT and histomorphometry to measure the osteolysis area of calvarial sagittal suture. Results. Compared with B and C group, BMD and bone histomorphometry index of group A was significantly reduced (P<0.05), and tibial trabeculae of group A was slimmer. Area of calvarial sagittal suture osteolysis were 0.262±0.009mm. 2. , 0.130±0.013mm. 2. , 0.307±0.013mm. 2. and 0.178±0.011mm. 2. in A1, A2, B1and B2 groups, respectively. There was significant difference among the groups. Conclusions. Osteoporosis may reduce particle-induced osteolysis in rat model

The Masquelet or induced membrane technique (IMT) is a two-stage surgical procedure used for the treatment of segmental bone defects. In this technique, the defect is first filled with a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) spacer, which triggers the formation of a membrane that will encapsulate the defect. During the second surgery, the spacer is carefully removed and replaced by autologous bone graft while preserving the membrane. This membrane is vascularized, contains growth factors, and provides mechanical stability to the graft, all of which are assumed to prevent graft resorption and promote bone healing. The technique is gaining in popularity and several variations have been introduced in the clinical practice. For instance, orthopaedic surgeons now often include antibiotics in the spacer to treat or prevent infection. However, the consequences of this approach on the properties of the induce membrane are not fully understood. Accordingly, in a small animal model, this study aimed to determine the impact on the induced membrane of impregnating spacers with antibiotics frequently used in the IMT. We surgically created a five-mm segmental defect in the right femur of 25 adult male Sprague Dawley rats. The bone was stabilized with a plate and screws before filling the defect with a PMMA spacer. Animals were divided into five equal groups according to the type and dose of antibiotics impregnated in the spacer: A) no antibiotic (control), B) low-dose tobramycin (1.2 g/40 g of PMMA), C) low-dose vancomycin (1 g/40 g of PMMA), D) high-dose tobramycin (3.6 g/40 g of PMMA), E) high-dose vancomycin (3 g/40 g of PMMA). The animals were euthanized three weeks after surgery and the induced membranes were collected and divided for analysis. We assessed the expression of selected genes (Alpl, Ctgf, Runx2, Tgfb1, Vegfa) within the membrane by quantitative real-time PCR. Moreover, frozen sections of the specimens were used to quantify vascularity by immunohistochemistry (CD31 antigen), proliferative cells by immunofluorescence (Ki-67 antigen), and membrane thickness. Microscopic images of the entire tissue sections were taken and analyzed using FIJI software. Finally, we measured the concentration of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the membranes by ELISA. No significant difference was found among the groups regarding the expression of genes related to osteogenesis (Alpl, Runx2), angiogenesis (Vegfa), or synthesis of extracellular matrix (Ctgf, Tgfb1) (n = four or five). Similarly, the density of proliferative cells and blood vessels within the membrane, as well as the membrane thickness, did not vary substantially between the control, low-dose, or high-dose antibiotic groups (n = four or five). The concentration of VEGF was also not significantly influenced by the treatment received (n = four or five). The addition of tobramycin or vancomycin to the spacer, at the defined low and high doses, does not significantly alter the bioactive characteristics of the membrane. These results suggest that orthopaedic surgeons could use antibiotic-impregnated spacers for the IMT without compromising the induced membrane and potentially bone healing

Aim. A gentamicin-eluting biocomposite consisting of hydroxyapatite and calcium sulfate. 1. can provide effective dead space management in chronic osteomyelitis. However, radiographic follow-up after implantation of this novel material has consistently shown evidence of several unique imaging features previously not described with other comparable bone graft substitutes. Conclusive interpretation of these newly described imaging features is difficult as long term follow-up and histological correlation is not yet available. The aim of this study was to establish a large animal model, closely simulating the clinical situation in order to permit further analysis of imaging features in correlation with histological progression of bone remodelling. Method. Standardised bone defects were created in ten Merino-wool sheep (age: two to four years). Large drill holes (diameter 2.5cm, depth 2cm, volume approx. 10ml) were placed in the medial femoral condyles of both hind legs and filled with a gentamicin antibiotic eluting bone graft substitute. *. Initially surgery was carried out on the right hind leg. Three months later, an identical intervention was performed on the contralateral side. With sacrifice planned after six or twelve months, bone voids three, six, nine and twelve months post-implantation are obtained for evaluation. The study was approved by the Animal Care Committee of Thuringia, Germany. Results. We present our preliminary radiographic results after a follow-up of six months. The bio-composite was clearly visible on all initial post-operative radiographs, showing intimate contact to the surrounding cancellous bone of the distal femur. At one month, a radio-dense ring around the bone void (the so called “halo sign”) was found in four of six bone voids treated with the biocomposite. From 2 months onwards this “halo” typically appeared to progress towards the centre of the treated defects, where spherical remnants of the composite often become increasingly apparent. This pattern has been termed “marble sign” and often appears in combination with the halo-sign. Between three to six months bone remodelling appears to continue, halo- and marble sign increasingly disappear and the composite becomes more and more indistinct from surrounding cancellous bone. Conclusions. We have established a large animal model, which appears to mimic the clinical situation very well and reproduces comparable radiographic post implantation features previously observed and described in clinical cases (including the “halo” and the “marble” sign). We expect that this model will provide valuable information regarding the correlation between histological and basic & advanced imaging features (including MRI, CT and Dexa scans) in the future

Background: The commonest cause of long term failure of total joint arthroplasty is aseptic loosening. As a result, many patients will require complex revision surgery that is not only technically challenging but associated with poorer results. Revisions procedures are also associated with higher morbidity and costs. Aim: To quantify osteolysis in a small animal model of aseptic loosening. This model can then be utilised for screening therapeutic agents to inhibit aseptic loosening. Materials and Methods: 7 time mated female mice were injected with radioactive calcium 45 on day 14 of gestation. The 52 offsprings were divided into 2 equal groups and subjected to either the implantation of clinically relevant ceramic particles or sham surgery into their femora. The non-operated femora were used as control. Animals were killed 4 weeks following surgery. Femora were retrieved, dissolved and radioactivity measured as outcome (CPM/mg = Counts Per Minute per milligram). A Linear mixed effects model was utilised to examine the difference in outcome between the 2 groups. Results: The mean scintillation count for sham surgery was 388 CPM/mg compared to 449 CPM/mg in the control femora. The mean scintillation count for ceramic particles was 351 CPM/mg compared to 420 CPM/mg in the control femora. The mean effect on outcome of surgery with ceramic particles relative to sham surgery was estimated at 16.7 CPM/mg (95CI%: 0.9 to 32.5 CPM/mg; p = 0.025). Conclusion: We have successfully shown that this model can quantify osteolysis. However, the difference detected between sham surgery and ceramic particles was biologically small displaying the inert properties of ceramic. Extending the post surgery interval might show a larger difference between sham surgery and ceramic particles and permit quantitative analysis of therapeutic agents to be screened to inhibit aseptic loosening

Aim. A gentamicin-eluting biocomposite consisting of hydroxyapatite (HA) and calcium sulphate (CaS)*1 can provide effective dead space management and bone formation in chronic osteomyelitis. However, radiographic follow-up after implantation of this biomaterial has shown imaging features previously not described with other comparable bone graft substitutes. Last year we presented preliminary results with a follow-up of 6 months. Now we present the radiographic, µCT and histological one-year follow-up of the critical-size bone defect model in sheep. The aim of this study was to simulate the clinical situation in a large animal model to correlate different imaging techniques used in the clinic (Radiography, CT and MRI scans) with histological finding. Methods. Standardised bone defects were created in ten Merino-wool sheep (age two to four years). Large drill holes (diameter 2.5cm, depth 2cm, volume approx. 10ml) were placed in the medial femoral condyles of both hind legs and filled with gentamicin-eluting biocomposite. Initially surgery was carried out on the right hind leg. Three months later, an identical intervention was performed on the contralateral side. Animals were sacrificed at three and six weeks and 4.5, six and twelve months. Radiographs and MRI scans were taken immediately after sacrifice. Filled bone voids were harvested en-block and analysed using µCT, and histology. Results. We present our radiographic, µCT and histological results after a follow-up of twelve months. The bio-composite was clearly visible on all post-operative radiographs and resorbed over the next four months following the before described pattern of “halo sign” and “marble sign”. µCT images of the “halo sign” show degradation of the biocomposite starting at its surface, with the degradation products CaS and HA carried into the periphery of the bone void. µCT images of the “marble sign” showed the further degradation of the biocomposite from the surface to its core, leaving a “marble shaped” remnant of the biocomposite behind. These remnants are completely resorbed at 4.5 months. µCT scans at twelve and six months' reveal progression of trabecula bone formation. The histological results confirm the µCT findings. Conclusion. We have established a large animal model, which mimics the clinical situation and reproduces comparable radiographic post implantation features previously observed in clinical cases (including the “halo” and the “marble” sign). Using µCT imaging and histology we can describe and understand the biodegradation process and the bone formation capacity of the biocomposite in detail. *1 CERAMENTTM|G, BONESUPPORT, Lund, Sweden. *2 CERAMENTTM|G

Introduction: Currently used small animal models of a critical size defect do not sufficiently simulate the biologically unreactive situation in an atrophic non-union. Furthermore, models using intramedullary nails are of little, and poorly standardised, biomechanical stability. This is a characteristic known to promote callus formation though, rather leading to a hypertrophic non-union. The aim of this study was to establish an atrophic non-union model in the rat femur under well defined biomechanical conditions and with minimised interactions between the processes in the healing zone and the implant by using external fixation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 80 male Sprague Dawley rats were randomly divided into two groups (non-union vs. control). All animals received an osteotomy (app. 0.5 mm gap) of the left femur, stabilised with a custom made external fixator. In the non-union group the periosteum was cauterised 2mm distal and proximal of the osteotomy, and the bone marrow was removed. X-rays were performed once weekly. Animals were sacrificed at 14 or 56 days post-operation. At both time points the femurs of 16 animals of each group underwent histological/histomorphometrical and immunhis-tochemical analyses (PMMA or paraffin embedding). Additionally at 56 days 8 animals of each group were tested biomechanically. The maximum torsional failure moment and the torsional stiffness were determined in relation to the intact femur. Post-mortem x-rays were evaluated in a descriptive manner. RESULTS: At 14 days the histology and radiology showed considerable mineralised periosteal callus in the control group, while the non-union group only showed very little periosteal callus, distant to the osteotomy. At 56 days the control group was completely, or at least partially, bridged by mineralised callus. The non-union group did not show a bridging of the osteotomy gap in any of the animals, moreover the bone ends were resorbed and the gap widened. The relative mean torsional stiffness was significantly larger (p< 0.001) in the control group compared to the non-union group (136.2±34.5% vs. 2.3±1.2%). In the non-union group no maximal torsional failure moment could be detected for the osteotomised femurs. In the control group it was 134.2±79.1%, relative to the intact femur. DISCUSSION: The cauterisation of the periosteum and the removal of the bone marrow, in combination with a high stiffness of the external fixator may create an atrophic non-union under well defined biomechanical conditions and with minimised interactions between the healing zone and the implant. This model will allow better standardised investigations on the subject of atrophic non-unions