In order to clarify the role of cytokines in the remodelling of the grafted tendon for ligament reconstruction we compared the responses to interleukin (IL)-1β, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)-BB and transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 of extrinsic fibroblasts infiltrating the frozen-thawed patellar tendon in rats with that of the normal tendon fibroblasts, in regard to the gene expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-13, using Northern blot analysis. We also examined, immunohistologically, the local expression of IL-1β, PDGF-BB, and TGF-β1 in fibroblasts infiltrating the frozen-thawed patellar tendon. Northern blot analysis showed that fibroblasts derived from the patellar tendon six weeks after the freeze-thaw procedure in situ showed less response to IL-1β than normal tendon fibroblasts with respect to MMP-13 mRNA gene expression. The immunohistological findings revealed that IL-1β was over-expressed in extrinsic fibroblasts which infiltrated the patellar tendon two and six weeks after the freeze-thaw procedure in situ, but neither PDGF-BB nor TGF-β1 was over-expressed in these extrinsic fibroblasts. Our findings indicated that IL-1β had a close relationship to matrix remodelling of the grafted tendon for ligament reconstruction, in addition to the commencement of inflammation during the tissue-healing process

Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the histological and mechanical features of tendon healing in a rabbit model with second-harmonic-generation (SHG) imaging and tensile testing. Materials and Methods. A total of eight male Japanese white rabbits were used for this study. The flexor digitorum tendons in their right leg were sharply transected, and then were repaired by intratendinous stitching. At four weeks post-operatively, the rabbits were killed and the flexor digitorum tendons in both right and left legs were excised and used as specimens for tendon healing (n = 8) and control (n = 8), respectively. Each specimen was examined by SHG imaging, followed by tensile testing, and the results of the two testing modalities were assessed for correlation. Results. While the SHG light intensity of the healing tendon samples was significantly lower than that of the uninjured tendon samples, 2D Fourier transform SHG images showed a clear difference in collagen fibre structure between the uninjured and the healing samples, and among the healing samples. The mean intensity of the SHG image showed a moderate correlation (R. 2. = 0.37) with Young’s modulus obtained from the tensile testing. Conclusion. Our results indicate that SHG microscopy may be a potential indicator of tendon healing. Cite this article: E. Hase, K. Sato, D. Yonekura, T. Minamikawa, M. Takahashi, T. Yasui. Evaluation of the histological and mechanical features of tendon healing in a rabbit model with the use of second-harmonic-generation imaging and tensile testing. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:577–585. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.511.BJR-2016-0162.R1

An understanding of the remodelling of tendon is crucial for the development of scientific methods of treatment and rehabilitation. This study tested the hypothesis that tendon adapts structurally in response to changes in functional loading. A novel model allowed manipulation of the mechanical environment of the patellar tendon in the presence of normal joint movement via the application of an adjustable external fixator mechanism between the patella and the tibia in sheep, while avoiding exposure of the patellar tendon itself. Stress shielding caused a significant reduction in the structural and material properties of stiffness (79%), ultimate load (69%), energy absorbed (61%), elastic modulus (76%) and ultimate stress (72%) of the tendon compared with controls. Compared with the material properties the structural properties exhibited better recovery after re-stressing with stiffness 97%, ultimate load 92%, energy absorbed 96%, elastic modulus 79% and ultimate stress 80%. The cross-sectional area of the re-stressed tendons was significantly greater than that of stress-shielded tendons. The remodelling phenomena exhibited in this study are consistent with a putative feedback mechanism under strain control. This study provides a basis from which to explore the interactions of tendon remodelling and mechanical environment

Little is known about the increase in length of tendons in postnatal life or of their response to limb lengthening procedures. A study was carried out in ten young and nine adult rabbits in which the tibia was lengthened by 20% at two rates 0.8 mm/day and 1.6 mm/day. The tendon of the flexor digitorum longus (FDL) muscle showed a significant increase in length in response to lengthening of the tibia. The young rabbits exhibited a significantly higher increase in length in the FDL tendon compared with the adults. There was no difference in the amount of lengthening of the FDL tendon at the different rates. Of the increase in length which occurred, 77% was in the proximal half of the tendon. This investigation demonstrated that tendons have the ability to lengthen during limb distraction. This occurred to a greater extent in the young who showed a higher proliferative response, suggesting that there may be less need for formal tendon lengthening in young children

We split 100 porcine flexor tendons into five groups of 20 tendons for repair. Three groups were repaired using the Pennington modified Kessler technique, the cruciate or the Savage technique, one using one new device per tendon and the other with two new devices per tendon. Half of the tendons received supplemental circumferential Silfverskiöld type B cross-stitch. The repairs were loaded to failure and a record made of their bulk, the force required to produce a 3 mm gap, the maximum force applied before failure and the stiffness. When only one device was used repairs were equivalent to the Pennington modified Kessler for all parameters except the force to produce a 3 mm gap when supplemented with a circumferential repair, which was equivalent to the cruciate. When two devices were used the repair strength was equivalent to the cruciate repair, and when the two-device repair was supplemented with a circumferential suture the force to produce a 3 mm gap was equivalent to that of the Savage six-strand technique

We investigated the effect of mitomycin-C on the reduction of the formation of peritendinous fibrous adhesions after tendon repair. In 20 Wistar albino rats the tendo Achillis was cut and repaired using a modified Kessler technique. The rats were divided into two equal groups. In group 1, an injection of mitomycin-C was placed between the tendon and skin of the right leg. In group 2, an identical volume of sterile normal saline was injected on the left side in a similar fashion. All the rats received mitomycin-C or saline for four weeks starting from the day of operation. The animals were killed after 30 days. The formation of peritendinous fibrous tissue, the inflammatory reaction and tendon healing were evaluated. The tensile strength of the repaired tendons was measured biomechanically. Microscopic evidence of the formation of adhesions and inflammation was less in group 1. There was no significant difference in the tensile load required to rupture the repaired tendons in the two groups. Mitomycin-C may therefore provide a simple and inexpensive means of preventing of post-operative adhesions

The purpose of this anatomical study was to explore the morphological variations of the semitendinosus and gracilis tendons in length and cross-section and the statistical relationship between length, cross-section, and body height. We studied the legs of 93 humans in 136 cadavers. In 43 specimens (46.2%) it was possible to harvest the tendons from both legs. We found considerable differences in the length and cross-section of the semitendinosus and the gracilis tendons with a significant correlation between the two. A correlation between the length of the femur, reflecting height, and the length of the tendons was only observed in specimens harvested from women. The reason for this gender difference was unclear. Additionally, there was a correlation between the cross-sectional area of the tendons and the length of the femur. Surgeons should be aware of the possibility of encountering insufficient length of tendon when undertaking reconstructive surgery as a result of anatomical variations between patients

Operative fixation is the treatment of choice for a rupture of the distal tendon of biceps. A variety of techniques have been described including transosseous sutures and suture anchors. The poor quality of the bone of the radial tuberosity might affect the load to failure of the tendon repair in early rehabilitation. The aim of this study was to determine the loads to failure of different techniques of fixation and to investigate their association with the bone mineral density of the radial tuberosity. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography was carried out to measure the trabecular and cortical bone mineral density of the radial tuberosity in 40 cadaver specimens. The loads to failure in four different techniques of fixation were determined. The Endobutton-based method showed the highest failure load at 270 N (. sd. 22) (p < 0.05). The mean failure load of the transosseous suture technique was 210 N (. sd. 66) and that of the TwinFix-QuickT 5.0 mm was 57 N (. sd. 22), significantly lower than those of all other repairs (p < 0.05). No significant correlation was seen between bone mineral density and loads to failure. The transosseous technique is an easy and cost-saving procedure for fixation of the distal biceps tendon. TwinFix-QuickT 5.0 mm had significantly lower failure loads, which might affect early rehabilitation, particularly in older patients

We carried out lacerations of 50%, followed by trimming, in ten turkey flexor tendons in vitro and measured the coefficient of friction at the tendon-pulley interface with loads of 200 g and 400 g and in 10°, 30°, 50° and 70° of flexion. Laceration increased the coefficient of friction from 0.12 for the intact tendon to 0.3 at both the test loads. Trimming the laceration reduced the coefficient of friction to 0.2. An exponential increase in the gliding resistance was found at 50° and 70° of flexion (p = 0.02 and p = 0.003, respectively) following trimming compared to that of the intact tendon. We concluded that trimming partially lacerated flexor tendons will reduce the gliding resistance at the tendon-pulley interface, but will lead to fragmentation and triggering of the tendon at higher degrees of flexion and loading. We recommend that higher degrees of flexion be avoided during early post-operative rehabilitation following trimming of a flexor tendon

Objectives . The effects of disease progression and common tendinopathy treatments on the tissue characteristics of human rotator cuff tendons have not previously been evaluated in detail owing to a lack of suitable sampling techniques. This study evaluated the structural characteristics of torn human supraspinatus tendons across the full disease spectrum, and the short-term effects of subacromial corticosteroid injections (SCIs) and subacromial decompression (SAD) surgery on these structural characteristics. . Methods . Samples were collected inter-operatively from supraspinatus tendons containing small, medium, large and massive full thickness tears (n = 33). Using a novel minimally invasive biopsy technique, paired samples were also collected from supraspinatus tendons containing partial thickness tears either before and seven weeks after subacromial SCI (n = 11), or before and seven weeks after SAD surgery (n = 14). Macroscopically normal subscapularis tendons of older patients (n = 5, mean age = 74.6 years) and supraspinatus tendons of younger patients (n = 16, mean age = 23.3) served as controls. Ultra- and micro-structural characteristics were assessed using atomic force microscopy and polarised light microscopy respectively. . Results. Significant structural differences existed between torn and control groups. Differences were identifiable early in the disease spectrum, and increased with increasing tear size. Neither SCI nor SAD surgery altered the structural properties of partially torn tendons seven weeks after treatment. . Conclusions . These findings may suggest the need for early clinical intervention strategies for torn rotator cuff tendons in order to prevent further degeneration of the tissue as tear size increases. Further work is required to establish the long-term abilities of SCI and SAD to prevent, and even reverse, such degeneration. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:252–61

Thrombin has many biological properties similar to those of growth factors. In a previous study, we showed that thrombin improves healing of the rat tendo Achillis. Low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) inhibits the activity and the generation of thrombin. We therefore considered that LMWH at a thromboprophylactic dose might inhibit tendon repair. Transection of the tendo Achillis was carried out in 86 rats and the healing tested mechanically. Low molecular weight heparin (dalateparin) was either injected a few minutes before the operation and then given continuously with an osmotic mini pump for seven days, or given as one injection before the operation. In another experiment ,we gave LMWH or a placebo by injection twice daily. The anti-factor Xa activity was analysed. Continuous treatment with LMWH impaired tendon healing. After seven days, this treatment caused a 33% reduction in force at failure, a 20% reduction in stiffness and a 67% reduction in energy uptake. However, if injected twice daily, LMWH had no effect on tendon healing. Anti-factor Xa activity was increased by LMWH treatment, but was normal between intermittent injections. Low molecular weight heparin delays tendon repair if given continuously, but not if injected intermittently, probably because the anti-factor Xa activity between injections returns to normal, allowing sufficient thrombin stimulation for repair. These findings indicate the need for caution in the assessment of long-acting thrombin and factor Xa inhibitors

We studied the vascular pattern of human posterior tibial tendons by injection techniques and immunohistochemically using antibodies against laminin. The intravascular volume of the posterior tibial tendon was determined using a new method of injection of a solution of . 99m. Tc and gelatin ink into the lower legs of cadavers. Three segments of 1 cm length from different regions of the human posterior tibial tendon were measured using a gamma well counter. The main blood supply arises from the posterior tibial artery. Blood vessels enter the paratenon of the posterior tibial tendon via a mesotenon from the posterior aspect. From the paratenon, the blood vessels penetrate the posterior tibial tendon and anastomose with a longitudinally orientated intratendinous network. The number of vessels in the substance of the tendon is consistently less than that in the surrounding paratenon. The distribution of blood vessels within the posterior tibial tendon is not homogeneous. In the retromalleolar region the intravascular volume was significantly reduced with a mean value of 15 μl/g of tendon tissue. There was no significant difference between the mean intravascular volumes of the proximal and distal areas (distal, 27.7 μl/g tendon tissue; proximal, 30 μl/g tendon tissue). The immunohistochemical investigation showed that there was no immunostaining for laminin in the anterior part of the tendon in the region where it passes behind the medial malleolus. This region is avascular. The most frequent site of rupture of the posterior tibial tendon is in the region behind the medial malleolus. A potential endogenous risk factor may be the limited healing potential of avascular tissue

We performed a biomechanical and histological study to clarify the effect of stress enhancement on the in situ frozen-thawed patellar tendon of the rabbit as a tendon autograft model. We used 48 Japanese White rabbits divided into three groups. In group 1, the patellar tendon underwent in situ freeze-thaw treatment with liquid nitrogen to kill intrinsic fibroblasts. In group 2, after similar treatment, the medial and lateral portions were resected so that the cross-sectional area was reduced by a third. In group 3, after treatment, the cross-sectional area was reduced by a half. In groups 2 and 3, the stress in the tendon was calculated theoretically to be 150% and 200% of the physiological stress during locomotion. Eight rabbits in each group were killed at three and six weeks, respectively. At three weeks, the mean values for the tensile strength of groups 2 and 3 were 113.7% and 75.7% of that of group 1, and at six weeks 101.2% and 57.4%, respectively. The tensile strength in group 3 was significantly lower than that in groups 1 and 2. The histological findings in group 2 were similar to those in group 1, although an acellular area appeared to be wider in the core portion compared with group 1 at each period. In group 3, the collagen bundles of the tendon were less organised than those of groups 1 and 2. Our findings showed that stress enhancement affects the remodelling of the frozen-thawed patellar tendon and that excessively high stress reduces the mechanical properties of the tendon. This indicates that high stress on the patellar tendon autograft should be avoided during ligament reconstruction

We examined the mechanical properties of Vicryl (polyglactin 910) mesh in vitro and assessed its use in vivo as a novel biomaterial to attach tendon to a hydroxyapatite-coated metal implant, the interface of which was augmented with autogenous bone and marrow graft. This was compared with tendon re-attachment using a compressive clamp device in an identical animal model. Two- and four-ply sleeves of Vicryl mesh tested to failure under tension reached 5.13% and 28.35% of the normal ovine patellar tendon, respectively. Four-ply sleeves supported gait in an ovine model with 67.05% weight-bearing through the operated limb at 12 weeks, without evidence of mechanical failure. Mesh fibres were visible at six weeks but had been completely resorbed by 12 weeks, with no evidence of chronic inflammation. The tendon-implant neoenthesis was predominantly an indirect type, with tendon attached to the bone-hydroxyapatite surface by perforating collagen fibres

We released the infraspinatus tendons of six sheep, allowed retraction of the musculotendinous unit over a period of 40 weeks and then performed a repair. We studied retraction of the musculotendinous unit 35 weeks later using CT, MRI and macroscopic dissection. The tendon was retracted by a mean of 4.7 cm (3.8 to 5.1) 40 weeks after release and remained at a mean of 4.2 cm (3.3 to 4.7) 35 weeks after the repair. Retraction of the muscle was only a mean of 2.7 cm (2.0 to 3.3) and 1.7 cm (1.1 to 2.2) respectively at these two points. Thus, the musculotendinous junction had shifted distally by a mean of 2.5 cm (2.0 to 2.8) relative to the tendon. Sheep muscle showed an ability to compensate for approximately 60% of the tendon retraction in a hitherto unknown fashion. Such retraction may not be a quantitatively reliable indicator of retraction of the muscle and may overestimate the need for elongation of the musculotendinous unit during repair

We compared the biological characteristics of extrinsic fibroblasts infiltrating the patellar tendon with those of normal, intrinsic fibroblasts in the normal tendon in vitro. Infiltrative fibroblasts were isolated from the patellar tendons of rabbits six weeks after an in situ freeze-thaw treatment which killed the intrinsic fibroblasts. These intrinsic cells were also isolated from the patellar tendons of rabbits which had not been so treated. Proliferation and invasive migration into the patellar tendon was significantly slower for infiltrative fibroblasts than for normal tendon fibroblasts. Flow-cytometric analysis indicated that expression of α5β1 integrin at the cell surface was significantly lower in infiltrative fibroblasts than in normal tendon fibroblasts. The findings suggest that cellular proliferation and invasive migration of fibroblasts into the patellar tendon after necrosis are inferior to those of the normal fibroblasts. The inferior intrinsic properties of infiltrative fibroblasts may contribute to a slow remodelling process in the grafted tendon after ligament reconstruction

Despite widespread use of radiofrequency (RF) shrinkage, there have been no animal studies on the effects of post-operative immobilisation on the histological properties of the shrunken tissue. We have therefore examined the role of post-operative immobilisation after RF shrinkage with special emphasis on the histological properties of collagenous tissue. One patellar tendon of 66 New Zealand White rabbits was shrunk. Six rabbits were killed immediately after the operation. Twenty rabbits were not immobilised, 20 were immobilised for three weeks and 20 for six weeks. Fibroblasts, collagen and vascular quality and density were evaluated on sections, stained by haematoxylin and eosin. Nine weeks after operation the histological properties were inferior to those of the contralateral control tendons. Shrunk tendons did not return to normal at any time after operation irrespective of whether the animals had been immobilised or not. All the parameters improved significantly between zero and three weeks after operation. Immobilised tendons tended to have a better and faster recovery. Careful rehabilitation is imperative after RF shrinkage. Immobilisation aids recovery of the histological properties. Our findings in this animal model support a period of immobilisation of more than three weeks

We examined macroscopically and microscopically 55 cadaver rotator-cuff tendons attached to their humeral heads to determine the distance between the edge of the articular cartilage and the tendon insertion of the supraspinatus (the width of the sulcus) and the score of regressive changes at the sulcus. In 33 specimens we measured the tensile strength. The width of the sulcus was correlated with the score of regressive changes and with the ultimate tensile strength of the supraspinatus tendon. The width of the sulcus correlated positively with the score of regressive changes (r = 0.66, p < 0.0001), but there was a negative correlation between the latter and the ultimate tensile strength (r = −0.81, p = 0.001) and between the width of the sulcus and the ultimate tensile strength (r = −0.74, p = 0.004). We believe that the width of the sulcus is a simple and useful clinical indicator of the integrity and the tensile strength of the supraspinatus tendon

We used demineralised bone matrix (DBM) to augment re-attachment of tendon to a metal prosthesis in an in vivo ovine model of reconstruction of the extensor mechanism at the knee. We hypothesised that augmentation of the tendon-implant interface with DBM would enhance the functional and histological outcomes as compared with previously reported control reconstructions without DBM. Function was assessed at six and 12 weeks postoperatively, and histological examination was undertaken at 12 weeks. A significant increase of 23.5% was observed in functional weight-bearing at six weeks in the DBM-augmented group compared with non-augmented controls (p = 0.004). By 12 weeks augmentation with DBM resulted in regeneration of a more direct-type enthesis, with regions of fibrocartilage, mineralised fibrocartilage and bone. In the controls the interface was predominantly indirect, with the tendon attached to the bone graft-hydroxyapatite base plate by perforating collagen fibres

In 14 rabbits we determined the origin of the cells effecting healing of the tendon of supraspinatus inserted into a bony trough. After two weeks both the cellularity of the underlying bone and the thickness of the subacromial bursa were significantly increased in the operated compared with the control shoulders. The cellularity of the stump of the tendon, however, was significantly decreased in the operated shoulders. In this model, both the underlying bone and the subacromial bursa but not the stump of the tendon contributed to the process of repair. We conclude that the medial stump should be debrided judiciously but that cutting back to bleeding tissue is not necessary during repair of the rotator cuff. Moreover, great care should be taken to preserve the subacromial bursa since it seems to play an important role in the healing process

The formation of restrictive adhesions around the musculotendinous unit after injury is one of the most vexing processes faced by the surgeon. In flexor tendons it has been shown that the synovial tissue is the source of aggressive fibroblasts which contribute to this process. Using a rabbit model, we have examined the effects of treating the synovial sheath with the antimetabolite 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) for five minutes. Inflammatory, proliferative and molecular markers were compared in the response of the treated and control tendons to injury. Compared with a control group we found that the proliferative and inflammatory responses were significantly reduced (p < 0.001) in the treated tendons. Not only was there a reduction in the cellular and cytokine response, but there also was a significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the level of activity of the known pro-scarring agent, transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1). These pilot studies indicate that the formation of restrictive adhesions may be modulated using a simple single-touch technique in the hope of producing a better return of function

We have investigated the effects of the intra-operative application of a combination of hyaluronic acid and amniotic membrane on adhesions in the flexor tendons of a chicken model. We used 144 tendons which were partially divided and then repaired by a modified Kessler technique. There were four test groups: group 1, simple tendon repair, group 2, repair site wrapped with amniotic membrane, group 3, hyaluronic acid injected around the repair site, and group 4, repair site wrapped with amniotic membrane and hyaluronic acid injected within it. At three and six weeks, the extent of the adhesions and the healing of the tendon were evaluated macroscopically and histologically. The range of movement of the toe and tensile strength of the repaired tendons were measured at 20 weeks. The least adhesions were observed in group 4 but no significant difference was found in the healing of the tendons. Overall, the intra-operative application of a combination of hyaluronic acid and amniotic membrane appears to be effective in preventing adhesions of the flexor tendon

Techniques for the selective cutting of ligaments in cadaver knees defined the static contributions of the posterolateral structures to external rotation, varus rotation and posterior tibial translation from 0° to 120° of flexion under defined loading conditions. Sectioning of the popliteofibular ligament (PFL) (group 1) produced no significant changes in the limits of the knee movement studied. Sectioning of the PFL and the popliteus tendon (femoral attachment, group 2) produced an increase of only 5° to 6° in external rotation from flexion of 30° to 120° (p < 0.001). Even when other ligaments were sectioned first (group 3), the maximum effect of the PFL was negligible. Our findings show that the popliteus muscle-tendon-ligament complex, lateral collateral ligament, and posterolateral capsular structures function as a unit. No individual structure alone is the primary restraint for the movements studied. Operative reconstruction should address all of the posterolateral structures, since restoration of only a portion may result in residual instability

Cryopreserved patellar tendon allografts are often recommended for reconstruction of anterior cruciate ligaments (ACLs) because living donor fibroblasts are thought to promote repair. Animal studies, however, indicate that ligaments regenerate from recipient rather than donor cells. If applicable to man, these observations suggest that allograft cell viability is unimportant. We therefore used short tandem repeat analysis with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification to determine the source of cells in nine human ACLs reconstructed with cryopreserved patellar tendon allografts. PCR amplification of donor and recipient DNA obtained before operation and DNA from the graft obtained two to ten months after transplantation revealed the genotype of cells and showed only recipient cells in the graft area. Rather than preserve the viability of donor cells, a technique is required which will facilitate the introduction of recipient cells into patellar tendon allografts.

Objectives. The present study describes a novel technique for revitalising allogenic intrasynovial tendons by combining cell-based therapy and mechanical stimulation in an ex vivo canine model. Methods. Specifically, canine flexor digitorum profundus tendons were used for this study and were divided into the following groups: (1) untreated, unprocessed normal tendon; (2) decellularised tendon; (3) bone marrow stromal cell (BMSC)-seeded tendon; and (4) BMSC-seeded and cyclically stretched tendon. Lateral slits were introduced on the tendon to facilitate cell seeding. Tendons from all four study groups were distracted by a servohydraulic testing machine. Tensile force and displacement data were continuously recorded at a sample rate of 20 Hz until 200 Newton of force was reached. Before testing, the cross-sectional dimensions of each tendon were measured with a digital caliper. Young’s modulus was calculated from the slope of the linear region of the stress-strain curve. The BMSCs were labeled for histological and cell viability evaluation on the decellularized tendon scaffold under a confocal microscope. Gene expression levels of selected extracellular matrix tendon growth factor genes were measured. Results were reported as mean ± SD and data was analyzed with one-way ANOVAs followed by Tukey’s post hoc multiple-comparison test. Results. We observed no significant difference in cross-sectional area or in Young’s modulus among the four study groups. In addition, histological sections showed that the BMSCs were aligned well and viable on the tendon slices after two-week culture in groups three and four. Expression levels of several extracellular matrix tendon growth factors, including collagen type I, collagen type III, and matrix metalloproteinase were significantly higher in group four than in group three (p < 0.05). Conclusion. Lateral slits introduced into de-cellularised tendon is a promising method of delivery of BMSCs without compromising cell viability and tendon mechanical properties. In addition, mechanical stimulation of a cell-seeded tendon can promote cell proliferation and enhance expression of collagen types I and III in vitro. Cite this article: J. H. Wu, A. R. Thoreson, A. Gingery, K. N. An, S. L. Moran, P. C. Amadio, C. Zhao. The revitalisation of flexor tendon allografts with bone marrow stromal cells and mechanical stimulation: An ex vivo model revitalising flexor tendon allografts. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:179–185. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.63.BJR-2016-0207.R1

Objectives. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of hyperglycaemia on oxidative stress markers and inflammatory and matrix gene expression within tendons of normal and diabetic rats and to give insights into the processes involved in tendinopathy. Methods. Using tenocytes from normal Sprague-Dawley rats, cultured both in control and high glucose conditions, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, cell proliferation, messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of NADPH oxidase (NOX) 1 and 4, interleukin-6 (IL-6), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 and -2 and type I and III collagens were determined after 48 and 72 hours in vitro. In an in vivo study, using diabetic rats and controls, NOX1 and 4 expressions in Achilles tendon were also determined. Results. In tenocyte cultures grown under high glucose conditions, gene expressions of NOX1, MMP-2, TIMP-1 and -2 after 48 and 72 hours, NOX4 after 48 hours and IL-6, type III collagen and TIMP-2 after 72 hours were significantly higher than those in control cultures grown under control glucose conditions. Type I collagen expression was significantly lower after 72 hours. ROS accumulation was significantly higher after 48 hours, and cell proliferation after 48 and 72 hours was significantly lower in high glucose than in control glucose conditions. In the diabetic rat model, NOX1 expression within the Achilles tendon was also significantly increased. Conclusion. This study suggests that high glucose conditions upregulate the expression of mRNA for NOX1 and IL-6 and the production of ROS. Moreover, high glucose conditions induce an abnormal tendon matrix expression pattern of type I collagen and a decrease in the proliferation of rat tenocytes. Cite this article: Y. Ueda, A. Inui, Y. Mifune, R. Sakata, T. Muto, Y. Harada, F. Takase, T. Kataoka, T. Kokubu, R. Kuroda. The effects of high glucose condition on rat tenocytes in vitro and rat Achilles tendon in vivo. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:362–372. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.75.BJR-2017-0126.R2

This study was undertaken to elucidate the mechanism of biological repair at the tendon-bone junction in a rat model. The stump of the toe flexor tendon was sutured to a drilled hole in the tibia (tendon suture group, n = 23) to investigate healing of the tendon-bone junction both radiologically and histologically. Radiological and histological findings were compared with those observed in a sham control group where the bone alone was drilled (n = 19). The biomechanical strength of the repaired junction was confirmed by pull-out testing six weeks after surgery in four rats in the tendon suture group. Callus formation was observed at the site of repair in the tendon suture group, whereas in the sham group callus formation was minimal. During the pull-out test, the repaired tendon-bone junction did not fail because the musculotendinous junction always disrupted first. In order to understand the factors that influenced callus formation at the site of repair, four further groups were evaluated. The nature of the sutured tendon itself was investigated by analysing healing of a tendon stump after necrosis had been induced with liquid nitrogen in 16 cases. A proximal suture group (n = 16) and a partial tenotomy group (n = 16) were prepared to investigate the effects of biomechanical loading on the site of repair. Finally, a group where the periosteum had been excised at the site of repair (n = 16) was examined to study the role of the periosteum. These four groups showed less callus formation radiologically and histologically than did the tendon suture group. In conclusion, the sutured tendon-bone junction healed and achieved mechanical strength at six weeks after suturing, showing good local callus formation. The viability of the tendon stump, mechanical loading and intact periosteum were all found to be important factors for better callus formation at a repaired tendon-bone junction

Objectives. Rotator cuff tears are among the most frequent upper extremity injuries. Current treatment strategies do not address the poor quality of the muscle and tendon following chronic rotator cuff tears. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) is a transcription factor that activates many genes that are important in skeletal muscle regeneration. HIF-1α is inhibited under normal physiological conditions by the HIF prolyl 4-hydroxylases (PHDs). In this study, we used a pharmacological PHD inhibitor, GSK1120360A, to enhance the activity of HIF-1α following the repair of a chronic cuff tear, and measured muscle fibre contractility, fibrosis, gene expression, and enthesis mechanics. Methods. Chronic supraspinatus tears were induced in adult rats, and repaired 28 days later. Rats received 0 mg/kg, 3 mg/kg, or 10 mg/kg GSK1120360A daily. Collagen content, contractility, fibre type distribution and size, the expression of genes involved in fibrosis, lipid accumulation, atrophy and inflammation, and the mechanical properties of the enthesis were then assessed two weeks following surgical repair. Results. At two weeks following repair, treatment groups showed increased muscle mass but there was a 15% decrease in force production in the 10 mg/kg group from controls, and no difference between the 0 mg/kg and the 3 mg/kg groups. There was a decrease in the expression of several gene transcripts related to matrix accumulation and fibrosis, and a 50% decrease in collagen content in both treated groups compared with controls. Additionally, the expression of inflammatory genes was reduced in the treated groups compared with controls. Finally, PHD inhibition improved the maximum stress and displacement to failure in repaired tendons. Conclusions. GSK1120360A resulted in improved enthesis mechanics with variable effects on muscle function. PHD inhibition may be beneficial for connective tissue injuries in which muscle atrophy has not occurred. Cite this article: J. P. Gumucio, M. D. Flood, A. Bedi, H. F. Kramer, A. J. Russell, C. L. Mendias. Inhibition of prolyl 4-hydroxylase decreases muscle fibrosis following chronic rotator cuff tear. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:57–65. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.61.BJR-2016-0232.R1

The role of inflammatory cells and their products in tendinopathy is not completely understood. Pro-inflammatory cytokines are upregulated after oxidative and other forms of stress. Based on observations that increased cytokine expression has been demonstrated in cyclically-loaded tendon cells we hypothesised that because of their role in oxidative stress and apoptosis, pro-inflammatory cytokines may be present in rodent and human models of tendinopathy. A rat supraspinatus tendinopathy model produced by running overuse was investigated at the genetic level by custom micro-arrays. Additionally, samples of torn supraspinatus tendon and matched intact subscapularis tendon were collected from patients undergoing arthroscopic shoulder surgery for rotator-cuff tears and control samples of subscapularis tendon from ten patients with normal rotator cuffs undergoing arthroscopic stabilisation of the shoulder were also obtained. These were all evaluated using semiquantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain-reaction and immunohistochemistry. We identified significant upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and apoptotic genes in the rodent model (p = 0.005). We further confirmed significantly increased levels of cytokine and apoptotic genes in human supraspinatus and subscapularis tendon harvested from patients with rotator cuff tears (p = 0.0008). These findings suggest that pro-inflammatory cytokines may play a role in tendinopathy and may provide a target for preventing tendinopathies

Objectives. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is being used increasingly often in the clinical setting to treat tendon-related pathologies. Yet the optimal PRP preparations to promote tendon healing in different patient populations are poorly defined. Here, we sought to determine whether increasing the concentration of platelet-derived proteins within a derivative of PRP, platelet lysate (PL), enhances tenocyte proliferation and migration in vitro, and whether the mitogenic properties of PL change with donor age. Methods. Concentrated PLs from both young (< 50 years) and aged (> 50 years) donors were prepared by exposing pooled PRP to a series of freeze-thaw cycles followed by dilution in plasma, and the levels of several platelet-derived proteins were measured using multiplex immunoassay technology. Human tenocytes were cultured with PLs to simulate a clinically relevant PRP treatment range, and cell growth and migration were assessed using DNA quantitation and gap closure assays, respectively. Results. Platelet-derived protein levels increased alongside higher PL concentrations, and PLs from both age groups improved tenocyte proliferation relative to control conditions. However, PLs from aged donors yielded a dose-response relationship in tenocyte behaviour, with higher PL concentrations resulting in increased tenocyte proliferation and migration. Conversely, no significant differences in tenocyte behaviour were detected when increasing the concentration of PLs from younger donors. Conclusion. Higher PL concentrations, when prepared from the PRP of aged but not young donors, were more effective than lower PL concentrations at promoting tenocyte proliferation and migration in vitro. Cite this article: D. R. Berger, C. J. Centeno, N. J. Steinmetz. Platelet lysates from aged donors promote human tenocyte proliferation and migration in a concentration-dependent manner. Bone Joint Res 2019;8:32–40. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.81.BJR-2018-0164.R1

While the evolution of the bony skeleton of the shoulder girdle is well described, there is little information regarding the soft tissues, in particular of the rotator cuff. We dissected the shoulders of 23 different species and compared the anatomical features of the tendons of the rotator cuff. The alignment and orientation of the collagen fibres of some of the tendons were also examined histologically. The behaviour of the relevant species was studied, with particular reference to the extent and frequency of forward-reaching and overhead activity of the forelimb. In quadrupedal species, the tendons of supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor were seen to insert into the greater tuberosity of the humerus separately. They therefore did not form a true rotator cuff with blending of the tendons. This was only found in advanced primates and in one unusual species, the tree kangaroo. These findings support the suggestion that the appearance of the rotator cuff in the evolutionary process parallels anatomical adaptation to regular overhead activity and the increased use of the arm away from the sagittal plane

Conventional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and newer specific cyclo-oxygenase-2 (cox-2) inhibitors are commonly used in musculoskeletal trauma and orthopaedic surgery to reduce the inflammatory response and pain. These drugs have been reported to impair bone metabolism. In reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament the hamstring tendons are mainly used as the graft of choice, and a prerequisite for good results is healing of the tendons in the bone tunnel. Many of these patients are routinely given NSAIDs or cox-2 inhibitors, although no studies have elucidated the effects of these drugs on tendon healing in the bone tunnel. In our study 60 female Wistar rats were randomly allocated into three groups of 20. One received parecoxib, one indometacin and one acted as a control. In all the rats the tendo-Achillis was released proximally from the calf muscles. It was then pulled through a drill hole in the distal tibia and sutured anteriorly. The rats were given parecoxib, indometacin or saline intraperitoneally twice daily for seven days. After 14 days the tendon/bone-tunnel interface was subjected to mechanical testing. Significantly lower maximum pull-out strength (p < 0.001), energy absorption (p < 0.001) and stiffness (p = 0.035) were found in rats given parecoxib and indometacin compared with the control group, most pronounced with parecoxib

Anatomical descriptions of the lateral retinaculum have been published, but the attachments, name or even existence of its tissue bands and layers are ill-defined. We have examined 35 specimens of the knee. The deep fascia is the most superficial layer and the joint capsule is the deepest. The intermediate layer is the most substantial and consists of derivatives of the iliotibial band and the quadriceps aponeurosis. The longitudinal fibres of the iliotibial band merge with those of the quadriceps aponeurosis adjacent to the patella. These longitudinal fibres are reinforced by superficial arciform fibres and on the deep aspect by transverse fibres of the iliotibial band. The latter are dense and provide attachment of the iliotibial band to the patella and the tendon of vastus lateralis obliquus. Our study identifies two important new findings which are a constant connection of the deep fascia to the quadriceps tendon superior and lateral to the patella, and, a connection of the deeper transverse fibres to the tendon of vastus lateralis obliquus

We compared the bulking and tensile strength of the Pennington modified Kessler, Cruciate and the Savage repairs in an ex vivo model. A total of 60 porcine tendons were randomised to three groups, half repaired using a core suture alone and the remainder employing a core and peripheral technique. The tendons were distracted to failure. The force required to produce a 3 mm gap, the ultimate strength, the mode of failure and bulking for each repair were assessed. We found that there was a significant increase in strength without an increase in bulk as the number of strands increased. The Cruciate repair was significantly more likely to fail by suture pullout than the Pennington modified Kessler or Savage repairs. We advise the use of the Savage repair, especially in the thumb, and a Cruciate when a Savage is not possible. The Pennington modified Kessler repair should be reserved for multiple tendon injuries

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to evaluate chronological changes in the collagen-type composition at tendon–bone interface during tendon–bone healing and to clarify the continuity between Sharpey-like fibres and inner fibres of the tendon. Methods. Male white rabbits were used to create an extra-articular bone–tendon graft model by grafting the extensor digitorum longus into a bone tunnel. Three rabbits were killed at two, four, eight, 12 and 26 weeks post-operatively. Elastica van Gieson staining was used to colour 5 µm coronal sections, which were examined under optical and polarised light microscopy. Immunostaining for type I, II and III collagen was also performed. Results. Sharpey-like fibres comprised of type III collagen in the early phase were gradually replaced by type I collagen from 12 weeks onwards, until continuity between the Sharpey-like fibres and inner fibres of the tendon was achieved by 26 weeks. Conclusions. Even in rabbits, which heal faster than humans, an observation period of at least 12 to 26 weeks is required, because the collagen-type composition of the Sharpey-like fibre bone–tendon connection may have insufficient pullout strength during this period. These results suggest that caution is necessary when permitting post-operative activity in humans who have undergone intra-bone tunnel grafts

Objectives. After an injury, the biological reattachment of tendon to bone is a challenge because healing takes place between a soft (tendon) and a hard (bone) tissue. Even after healing, the transition zone in the enthesis is not completely regenerated, making it susceptible to re-injury. In this study, we aimed to regenerate Achilles tendon entheses (ATEs) in wounded rats using a combination of kartogenin (KGN) and platelet-rich plasma (PRP). Methods. Wounds created in rat ATEs were given three different treatments: kartogenin platelet-rich plasma (KGN-PRP); PRP; or saline (control), followed by histological and immunochemical analyses, and mechanical testing of the rat ATEs after three months of healing. Results. Histological analysis showed well organised arrangement of collagen fibres and proteoglycan formation in the wounded ATEs in the KGN-PRP group. Furthermore, immunohistochemical analysis revealed fibrocartilage formation in the KGN-PRP-treated ATEs, evidenced by the presence of both collagen I and II in the healed ATE. Larger positively stained collagen III areas were found in both PRP and saline groups than those in the KGN-PRP group. Chondrocyte-related genes, SOX9 and collagen II, and tenocyte-related genes, collagen I and scleraxis (SCX), were also upregulated by KGN-PRP. Moreover, mechanical testing results showed higher ultimate tensile strength in the KGN-PRP group than in the saline control group. In contrast, PRP treatment appeared to have healed the injured ATE but induced no apparent formation of fibrocartilage. The saline-treated group showed poor healing without fibrocartilage tissue formation in the ATEs. Conclusions. Our results show that injection of KGN-PRP induces fibrocartilage formation in the wounded rat ATEs. Hence, KGN-PRP may be a clinically relevant, biological approach to regenerate injured enthesis effectively. Cite this article: J. Zhang, T. Yuan, N. Zheng, Y. Zhou, M. V. Hogan, J. H-C. Wang. The combined use of kartogenin and platelet-rich plasma promotes fibrocartilage formation in the wounded rat Achilles tendon entheses. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:231–244. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.64.BJR-2017-0268.R1

Objectives. Regenerative medicine is an emerging field aimed at the repair and regeneration of various tissues. To this end, cytokines (CKs), growth factors (GFs), and stem/progenitor cells have been applied in this field. However, obtaining and preparing these candidates requires invasive, costly, and time-consuming procedures. We hypothesised that skeletal muscle could be a favorable candidate tissue for the concept of a point-of-care approach. The purpose of this study was to characterize and confirm the biological potential of skeletal muscle supernatant for use in regenerative medicine. Methods. Semitendinosus muscle was used after harvesting tendon from patients who underwent anterior cruciate ligament reconstructions. A total of 500 milligrams of stripped muscle was minced and mixed with 1 mL of saline. The collected supernatant was analysed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and flow cytometry. The biological effects of the supernatant on cell proliferation, osteogenesis, and angiogenesis in vitro were evaluated using human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and human umbilical cord vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Results. The supernatant contained several GFs/CKs, with especially high levels of basic fibroblast growth factor, and CD34+ cells as the stem/progenitor cell fraction. With regard to biological potential, we confirmed that cell proliferation, osteoinduction, and angiogenesis in hMSCs and HUVECs were enhanced by the supernatant. Conclusions. The current study demonstrates the potential of a new point-of-care strategy for regenerative medicine using skeletal muscle supernatant. This attractive approach and readily-available material could be a promising option for tissue repair/regeneration in the clinical setting. Cite this article: M. Yoshikawa, T. Nakasa, M. Ishikawa, N. Adachi, M. Ochi. Evaluation of autologous skeletal muscle-derived factors for regenerative medicine applications. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:277–283. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.65.BJR-2016-0187.R1

The excursion resistance between the tendon and pulley is an important factor contributing to the limitation of function after surgery to the hand. The administration of hyaluronic acid (HA) in the early rehabilitation after tendon grafting may help to prevent adhesions. We evaluated changes in the excursion resistance between potential sources of flexor tendon grafts and the annular pulley in a canine model after administration of HA. The intrasynovial and extrasynovial tendons were soaked in 10 mg/ml of HA for five minutes. The excursion resistance between these tendons and the annular pulley of an intact proximal phalanx and that of the same tendons of the opposite foot without administration of HA were evaluated. The tendon of flexor digitorum profundus of the second toe without administration of HA was used as a control. The gliding resistance of canine tendons was significantly decreased after the administration of HA especially in the extrasynovial tendons. Our findings suggest that the administration of HA may improve the gliding function of a flexor tendon graft

Objectives. Triamcinolone acetonide (TA) is widely used for the treatment of rotator cuff injury because of its anti-inflammatory properties. However, TA can also produce deleterious effects such as tendon degeneration or rupture. These harmful effects could be prevented by the addition of platelet-rich plasma (PRP), however, the anti-inflammatory and anti-degenerative effects of the combined use of TA and PRP have not yet been made clear. The objective of this study was to determine how the combination of TA and PRP might influence the inflammation and degeneration of the rotator cuff by examining rotator cuff-derived cells induced by interleukin (IL)-1ß. Methods. Rotator cuff-derived cells were seeded under inflammatory stimulation conditions (with serum-free medium with 1 ng/ml IL-1ß for three hours), and then cultured in different media: serum-free (control group), serum-free + TA (0.1mg/ml) (TA group), serum-free + 10% PRP (PRP group), and serum-free + TA (0.1mg/ml) + 10% PRP (TA+PRP group). Cell morphology, cell viability, and expression of inflammatory and degenerative mediators were assessed. Results. Exposure to TA significantly decreased cell viability and changed the cell morphology; these effects were prevented by the simultaneous administration of PRP. Compared with the control group, expression levels of inflammatory genes and reactive oxygen species production were reduced in the TA, PRP, and TA+PRP groups. PRP significantly decreased the expression levels of degenerative marker genes. Conclusions. The combination of TA plus PRP exerts anti-inflammatory and anti-degenerative effects on rotator cuff-derived cells stimulated by IL-1ß. This combination has the potential to relieve the symptoms of rotator cuff injury. Cite this article: T. Muto, T. Kokubu, Y. Mifune, A. Inui, R. Sakata, Y. Harada, F. Takase, M. Kurosaka. Effects of platelet-rich plasma and triamcinolone acetonide on interleukin-1ß-stimulated human rotator cuff-derived cells. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:602–609. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.512.2000582

We studied bone-tendon healing using immunohistochemical methods in a rabbit model. Reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament was undertaken using semitendinosus tendon in 20 rabbits. Immunohistochemical evaluations were performed at one, two, four and eight weeks after the operation. The expression of CD31, RAM-11, VEGF, b-FGF, S-100 protein and collagen I, II and III in the bone-tendon interface was very similar to that in the endochondral ossification. Some of the type-III collagen in the outer layer of the graft, which was deposited at a very early phase after the operation, was believed to have matured into Sharpey-like fibres. However, remodelling of the tendon grafted into the bone tunnel was significantly delayed when compared with this ossification process. To promote healing, we believe that it is necessary to accelerate remodelling of the tendon, simultaneously with the augmentation of the ossification

We developed an in vivo model of the attachment of a patellar tendon to a metal implant to simulate the reconstruction of an extensor mechanism after replacement of the proximal tibia. In 24 ewes, the patellar tendon was attached to a hydroxyapatite (HA)-coated titanium prosthesis. In 12, the interface was augmented with autograft containing cancellous bone and marrow. In the remaining ewes, the interface was not grafted. Kinematic gait analysis showed nearly normal function of the joint by 12 weeks. Force-plate assessment showed a significant increase in functional weight-bearing in the grafted animals (p = 0.043). The tendon-implant interface showed that without graft, encapsulation of fibrous tissue occurred. With autograft, a developing tendon-bone-HA-implant interface was observed at six weeks and by 12 weeks a layered tendon-fibrocartilage-bone interface was seen which was similar to a direct-type enthesis. With stable mechanical fixation, an appropriate bioactive surface and biological augmentation the development of a functional tendon-implant interface can be achieved

We examined osteochondral autografts, obtained at a mean of 19.5 months (3 to 48) following extracorporeal irradiation and re-implantation to replace bone defects after removal of tumours. The specimens were obtained from six patients (mean age 13.3 years (10 to 18)) and consisted of articular cartilage (five), subchondral bone (five), external callus (one) and tendon (one). The tumour cells in the grafts were eradicated by a single radiation dose of 60 Gy. In three cartilage specimens, viable chondrocytes were detected. The survival of chondrocytes was confirmed with S-100 protein staining. Three specimens from the subchondral region and a tendon displayed features of regeneration. Callus was seen at the junction between host and irradiated bone

We reconstructed defects in the infraspinatus tendon using polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) felt grafts in 31 beagle dogs and examined the mechanical responses and histocompatibility. Except for one infected specimen, all the reconstructed infraspinatus tendons healed. We examined eight specimens each immediately after surgery and at six and 12 weeks. The ultimate tensile strength of the reconstructed tendons was 60.84 N, 172.88 N, and 306.51 N immediately after surgery and at six and 12 weeks, respectively. The stiffness of the specimens at the PTFE felt-bone interface was 9.61 kN/m, 64.67 kN/m, and 135.09 kN/m immediately after surgery and at six and 12 weeks, respectively. Six tendons were examined histologically at three, six, 12 and 24 weeks. Histological analysis showed that there was ingrowth of fibrous tissue between the PTFE fibres. Foreign-body reactions were found at the margin of the PTFE-bone interface between 12 and 24 weeks. The mechanical recovery and tissue affinity of PTFE felt to bone and to tendon support its use for reconstruction of the rotator cuff. The possible development of a foreign-body reaction should be borne in mind

Objectives. There are various pin-in-plaster methods for treating fractures of the distal radius. The purpose of this study is to introduce a modified technique of ‘pin in plaster’. Methods. Fifty-four patients with fractures of the distal radius were followed for one year post-operatively. Patients were excluded if they had type B fractures according to AO classification, multiple injuries or pathological fractures, and were treated more than seven days after injury. Range of movement and functional results were evaluated at three and six months and one and two years post-operatively. Radiographic parameters including radial inclination, tilt, and height, were measured pre- and post-operatively. Results. The average radial tilt was 10.6° of volar flexion and radial height was 10.2 mm at the sixth month post-operatively. Three cases of pin tract infection were recorded, all of which were treated successfully with oral antibiotics. There were no cases of pin loosening. A total of 73 patients underwent surgery, and three cases of radial nerve irritation were recorded at the time of cast removal. All radial nerve palsies resolved at the six-month follow-up. There were no cases of median nerve compression or carpal tunnel syndrome, and no cases of tendon injury. Conclusion. Our modified technique is effective to restore anatomic congruity and maintain reduction in fractures of the distal radius. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2015;4:176–180

We studied the origin of extensor carpi radialis brevis using 40 fresh frozen human cadaver specimens. Ten were stained with haematoxylin and eosin and trichrome which showed the collagenous structure of the extensor tendons at their origin. Gross anatomical observation showed that there was no definitive separation between brevis and communis at the osseotendinous junction. The histological findings confirmed the lack of separation between the two tendons. The extensor tendons were in close proximity to the joint capsule but trichrome staining showed no interdigitation of the tendon with the capsule. The validity of ascribing the pain of lateral epicondylitis to extensor carpi radialis brevis must be questioned. It appears to arise more from the ‘common extensor’ origin

Objectives. To investigate the appropriate dose and interval for the administration of triamcinolone acetonide (TA) in treating tendinopathy to avoid adverse effects such as tendon degeneration and rupture. Methods. Human rotator cuff-derived cells were cultured using three media: regular medium (control), regular medium with 0.1 mg/mL of TA (low TA group), and with 1.0 mg/mL of TA (high TA group). The cell morphology, apoptosis, and viability were assessed at designated time points. Results. In the low TA group, the cells became flattened and polygonal at seven days then returned to normal at 21 days. The cell apoptosis ratio and messenger ribonucleic acid expression of caspase-3, 7, 8, and 9 increased, and viability was reduced in the low and high groups at seven days. In the low TA group, apoptosis and viability returned to normal at 21 days, however, in the high TA group, the cell morphology, apoptosis ratio, caspase-3, 7, 8, and 9 and viability did not return by day 21. Re-administration was performed in the low TA group at 7-, 14-, and 21-day intervals, and cell viability did not return to the control level at the 7- and 14-day intervals. Conclusion. A 0.1 mg/mL dose of TA temporarily decreased cell viability and increased cell apoptosis, which was recovered at 21 days, however, 1 mg/mL of TA caused irreversible damage to cell morphology and viability. An interval > three weeks was needed to safely re-administer TA. These findings may help determine the appropriate dose and interval for TA injection therapy. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:328–34

Differential strain has been proposed to be a causative factor in failure of the supraspinatus tendon. We quantified the strains on the joint and bursal sides of the supraspinatus tendon with increasing load (20 to 200 N) and during 120° of glenohumeral abduction with a constant tensile load (20 to 100 N). We tested ten fresh frozen cadaver shoulders on a purpose-built rig. Differential variable reluctance extensometers allowed calculation of the strain. Static loading to 100 N or more increased strains on the joint side significantly more than on the bursal side. During glenohumeral abduction an increasing and significant difference in strain was measured between the joint and bursal sides of the supraspinatus tendon, which reached a maximum of 10.6% at abduction of 120°. The joint side strain of 7.5% reached values which were previously reported to cause failure. Differential strain causes shearing between the layers of the supraspinatus tendon, which may contribute to the propagation of intratendinous defects that are initiated by high joint side strains

The healing of a hamstring graft to bone is the weak link in the reconstruction of a cruciate ligament using this donor material. We therefore investigated the augmentation of healing at the tendon-bone interface using calcium-phosphate cement (CPC). We performed semitendinosus autograft reconstructions of the anterior cruciate ligament on both knees of 22 New Zealand white rabbits. The interface between the grafted tendon and the bone tunnel for one knee was filled with CPC. Six rabbits were killed at the end of the first and second post-operative weeks in order to evaluate the biomechanical changes. Two rabbits were then killed sequentially at the end of weeks 1, 3, 6, 12 and 24 after operation and tissue removed for serial histological observation. Histological examination showed that the use of CPC produced early, diffuse and massive bone ingrowth. By contrast, in the non-CPC group of rabbits only a thin layer of new bone was seen. Mechanical pull-out testing at one week showed that the mean maximal tensile strength was 6.505 ± 1.333 N for the CPC group and 2.048 ± 0.950 N for the non-CPC group. At two weeks the values were 11.491 ± 2.865 N and 5.452 ± 3.955 N, respectively. Our findings indicate that CPC is a potentially promising material in clinical practice as regards its ability to reinforce the fixation of the tendon attachment to bone and to augment the overall effectiveness of tendon healing to bone

We aimed to determine whether extracorporeal shock waves of varying intensity would damage the intact tendo Achillis and paratenon in a rabbit model. We used 42 female New Zealand white rabbits randomly divided into four groups as follows: group a received 1000 shock-wave impulses of an energy flux density of 0.08 mJ/mm. 2. , group b 1000 impulses of 0.28 mJ/mm. 2. , group c 1000 impulses of 0.60 mJ/mm. 2. , and group d was a control group. Sonographic and histological evaluation showed no changes in group a, and transient swelling of the tendon with a minor inflammatory reaction in group b. Group c had formation of paratendinous fluid with a significant increase in the anteroposterior diameter of the tendon. In this group there were marked histological changes with increased eosin staining, fibrinoid necrosis, fibrosis in the paratenon and infiltration of inflammatory cells. We conclude that there are dose-dependent changes in the tendon and paratenon after extracorporeal shock-wave therapy and that energy flux densities of over 0.28 mJ/mm. 2. should not be used clinically in the treatment of tendon disorders

We evaluated two reconstruction techniques for a simulated posterolateral corner injury on ten pairs of cadaver knees. Specimens were mounted at 30° and 90° of knee flexion to record external rotation and varus movement. Instability was created by transversely sectioning the lateral collateral ligament at its midpoint and the popliteus tendon was released at the lateral femoral condyle. The left knee was randomly assigned for reconstruction using either a combined or fibula-based treatment with the right knee receiving the other. After sectioning, laxity increased in all the specimens. Each technique restored external rotatory and varus stability at both flexion angles to levels similar to the intact condition. For the fibula-based reconstruction method, varus laxity at 30° of knee flexion did not differ from the intact state, but was significantly less than after the combined method. Both the fibula-based and combined posterolateral reconstruction techniques are equally effective in restoring stability following the simulated injury

This study was designed to test the hypothesis that the sensory innervation of bone might play an important role in sensing and responding to low-intensity pulsed ultrasound and explain its effect in promoting fracture healing. In 112 rats a standardised mid-shaft tibial fracture was created, supported with an intramedullary needle and divided into four groups of 28. These either had a sciatic neurectomy or a patellar tendon resection as control, and received the ultrasound or not as a sham treatment. Fracture union, callus mineralisation and remodelling were assessed using plain radiography, peripheral quantitative computed tomography and histomorphology. Daily ultrasound treatment significantly increased the rate of union and the volumetric bone mineral density in the fracture callus in the neurally intact rats (p = 0.025), but this stimulating effect was absent in the rats with sciatic neurectomy. Histomorphology demonstrated faster maturation of the callus in the group treated with ultrasound when compared with the control group. The results supported the hypothesis that intact innervation plays an important role in allowing low-intensity pulsed ultrasound to promote fracture healing

We used an in vivo model to assess the use of an autogenous cancellous bone block and marrow graft for augmenting tendon reattachment to metallic implants. We hypothesised that augmentation of the tendon-implant interface with a bone block would enable retention of the graft on the implant surface, enhance biological integration, and result in more consistent functional outcomes compared with previously reported morcellised graft augmentation techniques. A significant improvement in functional weight-bearing was observed between six and 12 weeks. The significant increase in ground reaction force through the operated limb between six and 12 weeks was greater than that reported previously with morcellised graft augmented reconstructions. Histological appearance and collagen fibre orientation with bone block augmentation more closely resembled that of an intact enthesis compared with the morcellised grafting technique. Bone block augmentation of tendon-implant interfaces results in more reliable functional and histological outcomes, with a return to pre-operative levels of weight-bearing by 24 weeks

We compared time-dependent changes in the biomechanical properties of single-and double-row repair of a simulated acute tear of the rotator cuff in rabbits to determine the effect of the fixation techniques on the healing process. A tear of the supraspinatus tendon was created in 80 rabbits which were separated into two equal groups. A single-row repair with two suture anchors was conducted in group 1 and a double-row repair with four suture anchors in group 2. A total of ten intact contralateral shoulder joints was used as a control group. Biomechanical testing was performed immediately post-operatively and at four and eight weeks, and histological analysis at four and eight weeks. The mean load to failure in group 2 animals was greater than in group 1, but both groups remained lower than the control group at all intervals. Histological analysis showed similar healing properties at four and eight weeks in both groups, but a significantly larger number of healed tendon-bone interfaces were identified in group 2 than in group 1 at eight weeks (p < 0.012). The ultimate load to failure increased with the number of suture anchors used immediately post-operatively, and at four and eight weeks. The increased load to failure at eight weeks seemed to be related to the increase in the surface area of healed tendon-to-bone in the double-row repair group

We assessed the predictive value of the macroscopic and detailed microscopic appearance of the coracoacromial ligament, subacromial bursa and rotator-cuff tendon in 20 patients undergoing subacromial decompression for impingement in the absence of full-thickness tears of the rotator cuff. Histologically, all specimens had features of degenerative change and oedema in the extracellular matrix. Inflammatory cells were seen, but there was no evidence of chronic inflammation. However, the outcome was not related to cell counts. At three months the mean Oxford shoulder score had improved from 29.2 (20 to 40) to 39.4 (28 to 48) (p < 0.0001) and at six months to 45.5 (36 to 48) (p < 0.0001). At six months, although all patients had improved, the seven patients with a hooked acromion had done so to a less extent than those with a flat or curved acromion judged by their mean Oxford shoulder scores of 43.5 and 46.5 respectively (p = 0.046). All five patients with partial-thickness tears were within this group and demonstrated less improvement than the patients with no tear (mean Oxford shoulder scores 43.2 and 46.4, respectively, p = 0.04). These findings imply that in the presence of a partial-thickness tear subacromial decompression may require additional specific treatment to the rotator cuff if the outcome is to be improved further

Anatomical atlases document safe corridors for placement of wires when using fine-wire circular external fixation. The furthest posterolateral corridor described in the distal tibia is through the fibula. This limits the crossing angle and stability of the frame. In this paper we describe a new, safe Retro-Fibular Wire corridor, which provides greater crossing angles and increased stability. In a cadaver study, 20 formalin-treated legs were divided into two groups. Wires were inserted into the distal quarter of the tibia using two possible corridors and standard techniques of dissection identified the distance of the wires from neurovascular structures. In both groups the posterior tibial neurovascular bundle was avoided. In group A the peroneal artery was at risk. In group B this injury was avoided. Comparison of the groups showed a significant difference (p < 0.001). We recommend the Retro-Fibular wire technique whereby wires are inserted into the tibia mid-way between the posteromedial border of the fibula and the tendo Achillis, at 30° to 45° to the sagittal plane, and introduced from a posterolateral to an anteromedial position. Subsequently, when using this technique in 30 patients, we have had no neurovascular complications or problems relating to tethering of the peroneal tendons

The effects of extracorporeal shock waves (ESWT) on tendon healing were assessed by observing histological and biomechanical parameters in a rat model of injury to the tendo Achillis. The injury was created by inserting an 18-G needle through tendo Achillis in 48 adult Wistar albino rats. The animals were divided into three groups. The first group received radiation only after the operation. The second received no shock waves and the third had 500 15 KV shocks on the second post-operative day. All the rats were killed on the 21st day after surgery. Histopathological analysis showed an increase in the number of capillaries and less formation of adhesions in the study group compared with the control group (p = 0.03). A significantly greater force was required to rupture the tendon in the study group (p = 0.028). Our findings suggest a basis for clinical trials using ESWT

Repair of the rotator cuff requires secure reattachment, but large chronic defects cause osteoporosis of the greater tuberosity which may then have insufficient strength to allow proper fixation of the tendon. Recently, suture anchors have been introduced, but have not been fully evaluated. We have investigated the strength of suture-to-anchor attachment, and the use of suture anchors in repairs of the rotator cuff either to the greater tuberosity or the lateral cortex of the humerus. The second method gave a significant increase in the strength of the repair (p = 0.014). The repairs were loaded cyclically and failed at low loads by cutting into bone and tendon, casting doubt on the integrity of the repair in early mobilisation after surgery. Repairs with suture anchors did not perform better than those with conventional transosseous attachment

Using a new, non-invasive method, we measured the patellofemoral force (PFF) in cadaver knees mounted in a rig to simulate weight-bearing. The PFF was measured from 20° to 120° of flexion before and after implanting three designs of knee prosthesis. Medial unicompartmental arthroplasty with a meniscal-bearing prosthesis and with retention of both cruciate ligaments caused no significant change in the PFF. After arthroplasty with a posterior-cruciate-retaining prosthesis and division of the anterior cruciate ligament, the PFF decreased in extension and increased by 20% in flexion. Implantation of a posterior stabilised prosthesis and division of both cruciate ligaments produced a decrease in the PFF in extension but maintained normal load in flexion. There was a direct relationship between the PFF and the angle made with the patellar tendon and the long axis of the tibia. The abnormalities of the patellar tendon angle which resulted from implantation of the two total prostheses explain the observed changes in the PFF and show how the mechanics of the patellofemoral joint depend upon the kinematics of the tibiofemoral articulation

Objectives

Platelet-rich fibrin matrix (PRFM) has been proved to enhance tenocyte proliferation but has mixed results when used during rotator cuff repair. The optimal PRFM preparation protocol should be determined before clinical application. To screen the best PRFM to each individual’s tenocytes effectively, small-diameter culture wells should be used to increase variables. The gelling effect of PRFM will occur when small-diameter culture wells are used. A co-culture device should be designed to avoid this effect.

Objectives

Intra-articular injections of local anaesthetics (LA), glucocorticoids (GC), or hyaluronic acid (HA) are used to treat osteoarthritis (OA). Contrast agents (CA) are needed to prove successful intra-articular injection or aspiration, or to visualize articular structures dynamically during fluoroscopy. Tranexamic acid (TA) is used to control haemostasis and prevent excessive intra-articular bleeding. Despite their common usage, little is known about the cytotoxicity of common drugs injected into joints. Thus, the aim of our study was to investigate the effects of LA, GC, HA, CA, and TA on the viability of primary human chondrocytes and tenocytes in vitro.

We compared joint proprioception in 12 hips in 12 patients with hemiarthroplasty after fracture of the hip, in 12 hips in 11 patients with total hip arthroplasty because of osteoarthritis and in a control group of 12 age-matched patients with no clinical complaints. There was no significant difference (p = 0.05) in joint proprioception in any of the groups. There was no decrease in joint proprioception in the group with total hip arthroplasty compared with the hemiarthroplasty group or with the control group. Other factors such as stretch receptors in the adjacent tendons and muscles may have a greater influence on proprioception in the hip than the intracapsular components

We have studied the formation of collagen fibrils in ‘activated fibroblasts’ of tendo Achillis of rabbits. The tendon was in the process of regeneration after experimental partial tenotomy. Samples were taken from the peri-incisional region and analysed by transmission electron microscopy. Ultrastructural examination showed the presence of a ‘fine dense granular substance’ inside the rough endoplasmic reticulum and procollagen filaments. These come together to form collagen fibrils in the dilated vacuoles of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The possible intra- and extracellular origin of collagen fibrils is suggested. Within the cell biosynthesis of collagen fibrils take place with the formation of collagen substance which gives rise to procollagen filaments. These make contact in parallel apposition to produce striated ‘spindle-shaped bodies’ which elongate by the longitudinal attachment of more procollagen filaments and form intracellular nascent collagen fibrils

We examined whether somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) were detectable after direct electrical stimulation of injured, reconstructed and normal anterior cruciate ligaments (ACL) during arthroscopy under general anaesthesia. We investigated the position sense of the knee before and after reconstruction and the correlation between the SEP and instability. We found detectable SEPs in all ligaments which had been reconstructed with autogenous semitendinosus and gracilis tendons over the past 18 months as well as in all cases of the normal group. The SEP was detectable in only 15 out of 32 cases in the injured group, although the voltages in the injured group were significantly lower than those of the controls. This was not the case in the reconstructed group. The postoperative position sense in 17 knees improved significantly, but there was no correlation between it and the voltage. The voltage of stable knees was significantly higher than that of the unstable joints. Our findings showed that sensory reinnervation occurred in the reconstructed human ACL and was closely related to the function of the knee

Free patellar tendon grafts used for the intra-articular replacement of ruptured anterior cruciate ligaments (ACL) lack perfusion at the time of implantation. The central core of the graft undergoes a process of ischaemic necrosis which may result in failure. Early reperfusion of the graft may diminish the extent of this process. We assessed the role of peritendinous connective tissue in the revascularisation of the patellar tendon graft from the day of implantation up to 24 days in a murine model using intravital microscopy. The peritendinous connective-tissue envelope of the graft was either completely removed, partially removed or not stripped before implantation into dorsal skinfold chambers of recipient mice. Initial revascularisation of the grafts with preserved peritendinous connective tissues began after two days. The process was delayed by five to six times in completely stripped patellar tendons (p < 0.05). Only grafts with preserved connective tissues showed high viability whereas those which were completely stripped appeared to be subvital. The presence of peritendinous connective tissues accelerates the revascularisation of free patellar tendon grafts

Objectives

Whilst gait speed is variable between healthy and injured adults, the extent to which speed alone alters the 3D in vivo knee kinematics has not been fully described. The purpose of this prospective study was to understand better the spatiotemporal and 3D knee kinematic changes induced by slow compared with normal self-selected walking speeds within young healthy adults.

Objectives

All-suture anchors are increasingly used in rotator cuff repair procedures. Potential benefits include decreased bone damage. However, there is limited published evidence for the relative strength of fixation for all-suture anchors compared with traditional anchors.

Objectives

Sustained intra-articular delivery of pharmacological agents is an attractive modality but requires use of a safe carrier that would not induce cartilage damage or fibrosis. Collagen scaffolds are widely available and could be used intra-articularly, but no investigation has looked at the safety of collagen scaffolds within synovial joints. The aim of this study was to determine the safety of collagen scaffold implantation in a validated in vivo animal model of knee arthrofibrosis.

Objectives

We investigated the effects on fracture healing of two up-regulators of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in a rat model of an open femoral osteotomy: tadalafil, a phosphodiesterase inhibitor, and the recently reported nutraceutical, COMB-4 (consisting of L-citrulline, Paullinia cupana, ginger and muira puama), given orally for either 14 or 42 days.

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to compare the results and complications of tibial lengthening over an intramedullary nail with treatment using the traditional Ilizarov method.

Objectives

The evidence base to inform the management of Achilles tendon rupture is sparse. The objectives of this research were to establish what current practice is in the United Kingdom and explore clinicians’ views on proposed further research in this area. This study was registered with the ISRCTN (ISRCTN68273773) as part of a larger programme of research.

Objectives

To assess the structure and extracellular matrix molecule expression of osteogenic cell sheets created via culture in medium with both dexamethasone (Dex) and ascorbic acid phosphate (AscP) compared either Dex or AscP alone.

Objectives

During open orthopaedic surgery, joints may be exposed to air, potentially leading to cartilage drying and chondrocyte death, however, the long-term effects of joint drying in vivo are poorly understood. We used an animal model to investigate the subsequent effects of joint drying on cartilage and chondrocytes.

Objectives

This study was conducted to evaluate the cytokine-release kinetics of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) according to different activation protocols.

This protocol describes a pragmatic multicentre randomised controlled trial (RCT) to assess the clinical and cost effectiveness of arthroscopic and open surgery in the management of rotator cuff tears. This trial began in 2007 and was modified in 2010, with the removal of a non-operative arm due to high rates of early crossover to surgery.

Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:155–60.

Objectives

Rotator cuff tears are among the most common and debilitating upper extremity injuries. Chronic cuff tears result in atrophy and an infiltration of fat into the muscle, a condition commonly referred to as ‘fatty degeneration’. While stem cell therapies hold promise for the treatment of cuff tears, a suitable immunodeficient animal model that could be used to study human or other xenograft-based therapies for the treatment of rotator cuff injuries had not previously been identified.

We welcome letters to the Editor concerning articles that have recently been published. Such letters will be subject to the usual stages of selection and editing; where appropriate the authors of the original article will be offered the opportunity to reply.

Peri-tendinous injection of local anaesthetic, both alone and in combination with corticosteroids, is commonly performed in the treatment of tendinopathies. Previous studies have shown that local anaesthetics and corticosteroids are chondrotoxic, but their effect on tenocytes remains unknown. We compared the effects of lidocaine and ropivacaine, alone or combined with dexamethasone, on the viability of cultured bovine tenocytes. Tenocytes were exposed to ten different conditions: 1) normal saline; 2) 1% lidocaine; 3) 2% lidocaine; 4) 0.2% ropivacaine; 5) 0.5% ropivacaine; 6) dexamethasone (dex); 7) 1% lidocaine+dex; 8) 2% lidocaine+dex; 9) 0.2% ropivacaine+dex; and 10) 0.5% ropivacaine+dex, for 30 minutes. After a 24-hour recovery period, the viability of the tenocytes was quantified using the CellTiter-Glo viability assay and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for live/dead cell counts. A 30-minute exposure to lidocaine alone was significantly toxic to the tenocytes in a dose-dependent manner, but a 30-minute exposure to ropivacaine or dexamethasone alone was not significantly toxic.

Dexamethasone potentiated ropivacaine tenocyte toxicity at higher doses of ropivacaine, but did not potentiate lidocaine tenocyte toxicity. As seen in other cell types, lidocaine has a dose-dependent toxicity to tenocytes but ropivacaine is not significantly toxic. Although dexamethasone alone is not toxic, its combination with 0.5% ropivacaine significantly increased its toxicity to tenocytes. These findings might be relevant to clinical practice and warrant further investigation.

Objectives

Lengthening osteotomies of the calcaneus in children are in general grafted with bone from the iliac crest. Artificial bone grafts have been introduced, however, their structural and clinical durability has not been documented. Radiostereometric analysis (RSA) is a very accurate and precise method for measurements of rigid body movements including the evaluation of joint implant and fracture stability, however, RSA has not previously been used in clinical studies of calcaneal osteotomies. We assessed the precision of RSA as a measurement tool in a lateral calcaneal lengthening osteotomy (LCLO).

Objectives

The clinical utility of routine cross sectional imaging of the abdomen and pelvis in the screening and surveillance of patients with primary soft-tissue sarcoma of the extremities for metastatic disease is controversial, based on its questionable yield paired with concerns regarding the risks of radiation exposure, cost, and morbidity resulting from false positive findings.

We dissected 20 cadaver hips in order to investigate the anatomy and excursion of the trochanteric muscles in relation to the posterior approach for total hip replacement. String models of each muscle were created and their excursion measured while the femur was moved between its anatomical position and the dislocated position. The position of the hip was determined by computer navigation.

In contrast to previous studies which showed a separate insertion of piriformis and obturator internus, our findings indicated that piriformis inserted onto the superior and anterior margins of the greater trochanter through a conjoint tendon with obturator internus, and had connections to gluteus medius posteriorly. Division of these connections allowed lateral mobilisation of gluteus medius with minimal retraction. Analysis of the excursion of these muscles revealed that positioning the thigh for preparation of the femur through this approach elongated piriformis to a maximum of 182%, obturator internus to 185% and obturator externus to 220% of their resting lengths, which are above the thresholds for rupture of these muscles.

Our findings suggested that gluteus medius may be protected from overstretching by release of its connection with the conjoint tendon. In addition, failure to detach piriformis or the obturators during a posterior approach for total hip replacement could potentially produce damage to these muscles because of over-stretching, obturator externus being the most vulnerable.

The establishment of a suitable animal model of repair of the rotator cuff is difficult since the presence of a true rotator cuff anatomically appears to be restricted almost exclusively to advanced primates. Our observational study describes the healing process after repair of the cuff in a primate model. Lesions were prepared and repaired in eight ‘middle-aged’ baboons. Two each were killed at four, eight, 12 and 15 weeks post-operatively. The bone-tendon repair zones were assessed macroscopically and histologically.

Healing of the baboon supraspinatus involved a sequence of stages resulting in the reestablishment of the bone-tendon junction. It was not uniform and occurred more rapidly at the sites of suture fixation than between them. Four weeks after repair the bone-tendon healing was immature. Whereas macroscopically the repair appeared to be healed at eight weeks, the Sharpey fibres holding the repair together did not appear in any considerable number before 12 weeks. By 15 weeks, the bone-tendon junction was almost, but not quite mature.

Our results support the use of a post-operative rehabilitation programme in man which protects the surgical repair for at least 12 to 15 weeks in order to allow maturation of tendon-to-bone healing.

The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of tissue hypoxia and apoptosis at different stages of tendinopathy and tears of the rotator cuff.

We studied tissue from 24 patients with eight graded stages of either impingement (mild, moderate and severe) or tears of the rotator cuff (partial, small, medium, large and massive) and three controls. Biopsies were analysed using three immunohistochemical techniques, namely antibodies against HIF-1α (a transcription factor produced in a hypoxic environment), BNip3 (a HIF-1α regulated pro-apoptotic protein) and TUNEL (detecting DNA fragmentation in apoptosis).

The HIF-1α expression was greatest in mild impingement and in partial, small, medium and large tears. BNip3 expression increased significantly in partial, small, medium and large tears but was reduced in massive tears. Apoptosis was increased in small, medium, large and massive tears but not in partial tears.

These findings reveal evidence of hypoxic damage throughout the spectrum of pathology of the rotator cuff which may contribute to loss of cells by apoptosis. This provides a novel insight into the causes of degeneration of the rotator cuff and highlights possible options for treatment.

Malpositioning of the trochanteric entry point during the introduction of an intramedullary nail may cause iatrogenic fracture or malreduction. Although the optimal point of insertion in the coronal plane has been well described, positioning in the sagittal plane is poorly defined.

The paired femora from 374 cadavers were placed both in the anatomical position and in internal rotation to neutralise femoral anteversion. A marker was placed at the apparent apex of the greater trochanter, and the lateral and anterior offsets from the axis of the femoral shaft were measured on anteroposterior and lateral photographs. Greater trochanteric morphology and trochanteric overhang were graded.

The mean anterior offset of the apex of the trochanter relative to the axis of the femoral shaft was 5.1 mm (sd 4.0) and 4.6 mm (sd 4.2) for the anatomical and neutralised positions, respectively. The mean lateral offset of the apex was 7.1 mm (sd 4.6) and 6.4 mm (sd 4.6), respectively.

Placement of the entry position at the apex of the greater trochanter in the anteroposterior view does not reliably centre an intramedullary nail in the sagittal plane. Based on our findings, the site of insertion should be about 5 mm posterior to the apex of the trochanter to allow for its anterior offset.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1274–81.

Injection or aspiration of the ankle may be performed through either an anteromedial or an anterolateral approach for diagnostic or therapeutic reasons. We evaluated the success of an intra-articular puncture in relation to its site in 76 ankles from 38 cadavers. Two orthopaedic surgical trainees each injected methylene blue dye into 18 of 38 ankles through an anterolateral approach and into 20 of 38 through an anteromedial. An arthrotomy was then performed to confirm the placement of the dye within the joint.

Of the anteromedial injections 31 of 40 (77.5%, 95% confidence interval (CI) 64.6 to 90.4) were successful as were 31 of 36 (86.1%, 95% CI 74.8 to 97.4) anterolateral injections. In total 62 of 76 (81.6%, 95% CI 72.9 to 90.3) of the injections were intra-articular with a trend towards greater accuracy with the anterolateral approach, but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.25). In the case of trainee A, 16 of 20 anteromedial injections and 14 of 18 anterolateral punctures were intra-articular. Trainee B made successful intra-articular punctures in 15 of 20 anteromedial and 17 of 18 anterolateral approaches. There was no significant difference between them (p = 0.5 and p = 0.16 for the anteromedial and anterolateral approaches, respectively). These results were similar to those of other reported studies. Unintended peri-articular injection can cause complications and an unsuccessful aspiration can delay diagnosis. Placement of the needle may be aided by the use of ultrasonographic scanning or fluoroscopy which may be required in certain instances.

Using an osteotomy of the olecranon as a model of a transverse fracture in 22 cadaver elbows we determined the ability of three different types of suture and stainless steel wire to maintain reduction when using a tension-band technique to stabilise the bone. Physiological cyclical loading simulating passive elbow movement (15 N) and using the arms to push up from a chair (450 N) were applied using an Instron materials testing machine whilst monitoring the osteotomy site with a video extensometer. Each osteotomy was repaired by one of four materials, namely, Stainless Steel Wire (7), No 2 Ethibond (3), No 5 Ethibond (5), or No 2 FiberWire (7).

There were no failures (movement of > 2 mm) with stainless steel wire or FiberWire and no significant difference in the movements measured across the site of the osteotomy (p = 0.99). The No. 2 Ethibond failed at 450 N and two of the five of No. 5 Ethibond sutures had a separation of > 2 mm at 450 N.

FiberWire as the tension band in this model held the reduction as effectively as stainless steel wire and may reduce the incidence of discomfort from the hardware. On the basis of our findings we suggest that a clinical trial should be undertaken

We examined cultured osteoblasts derived from paired samples from the greater tuberosity and acromion from eight patients with large chronic tears of the rotator cuff.

We found that osteoblasts from the tuberosity had no apparent response to mechanical stimulation, whereas those derived from the acromion showed an increase in alkaline phosphatase activity and nitric oxide release which is normally a response of bone cells to mechanical strain. By contrast, we found that cells from both regions were able to respond to dexamethasone, a well-established promoter of osteoblastic differentiation, with the expected increase in alkaline phosphatase activity.

Our findings indicate that the failure of repair of the rotator cuff may be due, at least in part, to a compromised capacity for mechanoadaptation within the greater tuberosity. It remains to be seen whether this apparent decrease in the sensitivity of bone cells to mechanical stimulation is the specific consequence of the reduced load-bearing history of the greater tuberosity in these patients.

Objectives

We aimed to examine the characteristics of deep venous flow in the leg in a cast and the effects of a wearable neuromuscular stimulator (geko; FirstKind Ltd) and also to explore the participants’ tolerance of the stimulator.

We report the effects of local administration of osteogenic protein-1 on the biomechanical properties of the overstretched anterior cruciate ligament in an animal model. An injury in the anterior cruciate ligament was created in 45 rabbits. They were divided into three equal groups. In group 1, no treatment was applied, in group II, phosphate-buffered saline was applied around the injured ligament, and in group III, 12.5 μg of osteogenic protein-1 mixed with phosphate-buffered saline was applied around the injured ligament. A control group of 15 rabbits was assembled from randomly-selected injured knees from among the first three groups. Each rabbit was killed at 12 weeks.

The maximum load and stiffness of the anterior cruciate ligament was found to be significantly greater in group III than either group 1 (p = 0.002, p = 0.014) or group II (p = 0.032, p = 0.025). The tensile strength and the tangent modulus of fascicles from the ligament were also significantly greater in group III than either group I (p = 0.002, p = 0.0174) or II (p = 0.005, p = 0.022).

The application of osteogenic protein-1 enhanced the healing in the injured anterior cruciate ligament, but compared with the control group the treated ligament remained lengthened. The administration of osteogenic protein-1 may have a therapeutic role in treating the overstretched anterior cruciate ligament.

The biomechanics of the patellofemoral joint can become disturbed during total knee replacement by alterations induced by the position and shape of the different prosthetic components. The role of the patella and femoral trochlea has been well studied. We have examined the effect of anterior or posterior positioning of the tibial component on the mechanisms of patellofemoral contact in total knee replacement. The hypothesis was that placing the tibial component more posteriorly would reduce patellofemoral contact stress while providing a more efficient lever arm during extension of the knee.

We studied five different positions of the tibial component using a six degrees of freedom dynamic knee simulator system based on the Oxford rig, while simulating an active knee squat under physiological loading conditions. The patellofemoral contact force decreased at a mean of 2.2% for every millimetre of posterior translation of the tibial component. Anterior positions of the tibial component were associated with elevation of the patellofemoral joint pressure, which was particularly marked in flexion > 90°.

From our results we believe that more posterior positioning of the tibial component in total knee replacement would be beneficial to the patellofemoral joint.

There has been only one limited report dating from 1941 using dissection which has described the tibiofemoral joint between 120° and 160° of flexion despite the relevance of this arc to total knee replacement. We now provide a full description having examined one living and eight cadaver knees using MRI, dissection and previously published cryosections in one knee.

In the range of flexion from 120° to 160° the flexion facet centre of the medial femoral condyle moves back 5 mm and rises up on to the posterior horn of the medial meniscus. At 160° the posterior horn is compressed in a synovial recess between the femoral cortex and the tibia. This limits flexion. The lateral femoral condyle also rolls back with the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus moving with the condyle. Both move down over the posterior tibia at 160° of flexion.

Neither the events between 120° and 160° nor the anatomy at 160° could result from a continuation of the kinematics up to 120°. Therefore hyperflexion is a separate arc. The anatomical and functional features of this arc suggest that it would be difficult to design an implant for total knee replacement giving physiological movement from 0° to 160°.

Intra-articular punctures and injections are performed routinely on patients with injuries to and chronic diseases of joints, to release an effusion or haemarthrosis, or to inject drugs. The purpose of this study was to investigate the accuracy of placement of the needle during this procedure.

A total of 76 cadaver acromioclavicular joints were injected with a solution containing methyl blue and subsequently dissected to distinguish intra- from peri-articular injection. In order to assess the importance of experience in achieving accurate placement, half of the injections were performed by an inexperienced resident and half by a skilled specialist. The specialist injected a further 20 cadaver acromioclavicular joints with the aid of an image intensifier. The overall frequency of peri-articular injection was much higher than expected at 43% (33 of 76) overall, with 42% (16 of 38) by the specialist and 45% (17 of 38) by the resident. The specialist entered the joint in all 20 cases when using the image intensifier.

Correct positioning of the needle in the joint should be facilitated by fluoroscopy, thereby guaranteeing an intra-articular injection.

The nervous system is known to be involved in inflammation and repair. We aimed to determine the effect of physical activity on the healing of a muscle injury and to examine the pattern of innervation. Using a drop-ball technique, a contusion was produced in the gastrocnemius in 20 rats. In ten the limb was immobilised in a plaster cast and the remaining ten had mobilisation on a running wheel. The muscle and the corresponding dorsal-root ganglia were studied by histological and immunohistochemical methods.

In the mobilisation group, there was a significant reduction in lymphocytes (p = 0.016), macrophages (p = 0.008) and myotubules (p = 0.008) between three and 21 days. The formation of myotubules and the density of nerve fibres was significantly higher (both p = 0.016) compared with those in the immobilisation group at three days, while the density of CGRP-positive fibres was significantly lower (p = 0.016) after 21 days.

Mobilisation after contusional injury to the muscle resulted in early and increased formation of myotubules, early nerve regeneration and progressive reduction in inflammation, suggesting that it promoted a better healing response.

The response of the muscle is critical in determining the functional outcome of limb lengthening. We hypothesised that muscle response would vary with age and therefore studied the response of the muscles during tibial lengthening in ten young and ten mature rabbits. A bromodeoxyuridine technique was used to identify the dividing cells.

The young rabbits demonstrated a significantly greater proliferative response to the distraction stimulus than the mature ones. This was particularly pronounced at the myotendinous junction, but was also evident within the muscle belly.

Younger muscle adapted better to lengthening, suggesting that in patients in whom a large degree of muscle lengthening is required it may be beneficial to carry out this procedure when they are young, in order to achieve the optimal functional result.

Compartment syndrome of the foot requires urgent surgical treatment. Currently, there is still no agreement on the number and location of the myofascial compartments of the foot. The aim of this cadaver study was to provide an anatomical basis for surgical decompression in the event of compartment syndrome. We found that there were three tough vertical fascial septae that extended from the hindfoot to the midfoot on the plantar aspect of the foot. These septae separated the posterior half of the foot into three compartments. The medial compartment containing the abductor hallucis was surrounded medially by skin and subcutaneous fat and laterally by the medial septum. The intermediate compartment, containing the flexor digitorum brevis and the quadratus plantae more deeply, was surrounded by the medial septum medially, the intermediate septum laterally and the main plantar aponeurosis on its plantar aspect. The lateral compartment containing the abductor digiti minimi was surrounded medially by the intermediate septum, laterally by the lateral septum and on its plantar aspect by the lateral band of the main plantar aponeurosis. No distinct myofascial compartments exist in the forefoot.

Based on our findings, in theory, fasciotomy of the hindfoot compartments through a modified medial incision would be sufficient to decompress the foot.

Our aim was to determine the most repeatable three-dimensional measurement of glenoid orientation and to compare it between shoulders with intact and torn rotator cuffs. Our null hypothesis was that glenoid orientation in the scapulae of shoulders with a full-thickness tear of the rotator cuff was the same as that in shoulders with an intact rotator cuff.

We studied 24 shoulders in cadavers, 12 with an intact rotator cuff and 12 with a full-thickness tear. Two different observers used a three-dimensional digitising system to measure glenoid orientation in the scapular plane (ie glenoid inclination) using six different techniques. Glenoid version was also measured. The overall precision of the measurements revealed an error of less than 0.6°.

Intraobserver reliability (correlation coefficients of 0.990 and 0.984 for each observer) and interobserver reliability (correlation coefficient of 0.985) were highest for measurement of glenoid inclination based on the angle obtained from a line connecting the superior and inferior points of the glenoid and that connecting the most superior point of the glenoid and the most superior point on the body of the scapula. There were no differences in glenoid inclination (p = 0.34) or glenoid version (p = 0.12) in scapulae from shoulders with an intact rotator cuff and those with a full-thickness tear. Abnormal glenoid orientation was not present in shoulders with a torn rotator cuff.

In order to determine the potential for an internervous safe zone, 20 hips from human cadavers were dissected to map out the precise pattern of innervation of the hip capsule. The results were illustrated in the form of a clock face. The reference point for measurement was the inferior acetabular notch, representing six o’clock. Capsular branches from between five and seven nerves contributed to each hip joint, and were found to innervate the capsule in a relatively constant pattern. An internervous safe zone was identified anterosuperiorly in an arc of 45° between the positions of one o’clock and half past two.

Our study shows that there is an internervous zone that could be safely used in a capsule-retaining anterior, anterolateral or lateral approach to the hip, or during portal placement in hip arthroscopy.