Differences at motor control strategies to provide dynamic balance in various tasks in diabetic polyneuropatic (DPN) patients due to losing the lower extremity somatosensory information were reported in the literature. It has been stated that dynamics of center of mass (CoM) is controlled by center of pressure (CoP) during human upright standing and active daily movements. Indeed analyzing kinematic trajectories of joints unveil motor control strategies stabilizing CoM. Nevertheless, we hypothesized that imbalance disorders/CoM destabilization observed at DPN patients due to lack of tactile information about the base of support cannot be explained only by looking at joint kinematics, rather functional foot usage is proposed to be an important counterpart at controlling CoM. In this study, we included 14 DPN patients, who are diagnosed through clinical examination and electroneuromyography, and age matched 14 healthy subjects (HS) to identify control strategies in functional reach test (FRT). After measuring participants’ foot arch index (FAI) by a custom-made archmeter, they were tested by using a force plate, motion analysis system, surface electromyography and pressure pad, all working in synchronous during FRT. We analyzed data to determine effect of structural and functional foot pathologies due to neuropathy on patient performance and postural control estimating FAI, reach length (FR), FR to height (H) ratio (FR/H; normalized FR with respect to height), displacement of CoM and CoP in anteroposterior direction only, moment arm (MA, defined as the difference between CoP and CoM at the end of FRT), ankle, knee and hip joint angles computed at the sagittal plane for both extremities. Kinematic metrics included initial and final joint angles, defined with respect to start and end of reaching respectively. Further difference in the final and initial joint angles was defined as Δ. FAI was founded significantly lower in DPN patients (DPN: 0.3404; HS: 0.3643, p= <0.05). The patients’ FR, FR/H and absolute MA and displacement of CoM were significantly shorter than the control group (p= <0.05). Displacement of CoP between the two groups were not significant. Further we observed that CoM was lacking CoP in DPN patients (mean MA: +0.88 cm), while leading CoP in HS (mean MA: −1.59 cm) at the end of FRT. All initial angles were similar in two groups, however in DPN patients final right and left hip flexion angle (p=0.016 and p=0.028 respectively) and left ankle plantar flexion angle (p=0.04) were smaller than HS significantly. DPN patients had significantly less (p=0.029) hip flexion (mean at right hip angle, Δ=25.0°) compared to HS (Δ=33.53°) and ankle plantar flexion (DPN mean at right ankle angle, Δ=6.42°, HS mean Δ=9.07°; p=0.05). The results suggest that movement of both hip and ankle joints was limited simultaneously in DPN patients causing lack of CoM with respect to CoP at the end of reaching with significantly lower FAI. These results lead to the fact that cutaneous and joint somatosensory information from foot and ankle along with the structure of foot arch may play an important role in maintaining dynamic balance and performance of environmental context. In further studies, we expect to show that difference at control strategies in DPN patients due to restricted functional foot usage might be a good predictor of how neuropathy evolves to change biomechanical aspects of biped erect posture

As concern exists as to how much load a child should carry, we studied the gait effects of increased added mass with varied backpack styles. Backpack loads of up to 25% increase above body weight were added to three backpack styles (double-strap, single-strap, hipster). Individuals ambulating thirty-meters, were instrumented with the WPGM tm (Walkabout Portable Gait Monitoring System). Relative power of the approximate center of mass in three dimension, gait frequency and forward and vertical asymmetries were measured. Five females (avg. age 12.4 years) and five males (avg. age 12.8 years) were compared to a group of forty-eight normal age-matched controls. Data was analyzed with the GaitView tm (Innomed) and Excel tm (Microsoft) programs. Overall, with 25% increased mass above body weight there was an 8% reduction in velocity (r2 0.9641). Velocity reduction occured with decreased step length (r2 0.9924). The hipster showed significant slowing with no difference between one and two strap models. Forward asymmetry increased 20% and vertical asymmetry increased 10% for all backpack styles. The two-strap gave minimal asymmetry with the one strap and hipster showing significant differences. Relative power decreased 20% and 15% in the vertical and forward dimension and increased 15% horizontally. Significant difference of approximate center of mass measurements for boys and girls with increasing backpack weight occurred between 10–15% increased loads. With loads of up to 25% greater than body weight, differences are seen with gait velocity slowing, increasing asymmetry, and greater horizontal power. The two-strap backpack is superior in its effect of minimizing asymmetry and velocity impacts

Introduction. Untreated hip osteoarthritis is a debilitating condition leading to pain, bone deformation, and limited range of motion. Unfortunately, studies have not been conducted under in vivo conditions to determine progressive kinematics variations to a hip joint from normal to pre-operative and post-operative THA conditions. Therefore, the objective was this study was to quantify normal and degenerative hip kinematics, compared to post-operative hip kinematics. Methods. Twenty unique subjects were analyzed; 10 healthy, normal subjects and 10 degenerative, subjects analyzed pre-operatively and then again post-operatively after receiving a THA. During each assessment, the subject performed a gait (stance and swing phase) activity under mobile, fluoroscopic surveillance. The normal and diseased subjects had CT scans in order to acquire bone geometry while implanted subjects had corresponding CAD models supplied. Femoral head and acetabular cup centers were approximated by spheres based on unique geometries while the component centers were pre-defined as the center of mass. These centers were used to compare femoral head sliding magnitudes on the acetabular cup during the activity for all subjects. Subjects were noted to have separation with changes in center magnitudes of more than 1 mm during gait. Utilizing 3D-to-2D registration techniques, the hip joint kinematics were derived and assessed. This allowed for visualization of normal subject positioning, pre-op bone deterioration, and implant placement within the bones. Results. None of the normal, experienced femoral head sliding (FHS) within the acetabulum. Two of the normal subjects revealed tendencies more similar to a degenerative hip. However, 4/10 of the degenerative subjects saw significant FHS with an average maximum of 1.344 0.522 mm. It was interesting to note that none of the implanted subjects experienced FHS, demonstrating improved kinematic trends more normal-like and revealing better kinematic patterns post-operative compared to their pre-operative conditions. Discussion. Overall, analysis has revealed trends of degenerative hips experiencing more abnormal hip kinematics due to lower surface area and greater magnitudes of femoral center head displacement. The implanted subjects saw decreased amounts of displacement which correlated to increases in contact area. These results more closely matched normal hip kinematics and showed an improvement over their diseased condition. It seems that the surgeon in this study better replicated the stem version angle to the pre-operative conditions, leaving less transverse stress of the femoral head on the acetabular cup, possibly leading to the femoral head remaining within the acetabular cup and the subjects not experiencing FHS. Significance. Pre-operative, degenerative hip subjects displayed abnormal femoral hip displacement at greater magnitudes to normal hip subjects. After THA, these subjects saw reduced magnitudes of displacement more in line with normal hip kinematics. For any figures or tables, please contact authors directly

Introduction. Subluxation and dislocation are frequently cited reasons for THA revision. For patients who cannot accommodate a larger femoral head, an offset liner may enhance stability. However, this change in biomechanics may impact the mechanical performance of the bearing surface. To our knowledge, no studies have compared wear rates of offset and neutral liners. Herein we radiographically compare the in-vivo wear performance of 0mm and 4mm offset acetabular liners. Methods. Two cohorts of 40 individuals (0mm, 4mm offset highly crosslinked acetabular liners, respectively) were selected from a single surgeon's consecutive caseload. All patients received the same THA system via the posterior approach. AP radiographs were taken at 6-week (‘pre’) and 5-year (‘post’) postoperative appointments. Patients with poor radiograph quality were excluded (n. 0mm. =5, n. 4mm. =4). Linear and volumetric wear were quantified according to Patent US5610966A. Briefly, images were processed in computer aided design (CAD) software. Differences in vector length between the center of the femoral head and the acetabular cup (pre- and post-vector, Figure 1) allow for calculation of linear wear and wear rate. The angle (β) between the linear wear vector and the cup inclination line was quantified (Figure 1). Patients with negative β were excluded from volumetric analyses (n. 0mm. =11, n. 4mm. =7). Volumetric wear was accordingly calculated accounting for wear vector direction. The results from three randomly selected patients were compared to results achieved using the “Hip Analysis Suite” software package (UChicagoTech). Results. Linear wear rate (Figure 2A) for 0mm offsets was significantly lower than the 4mm offsets (0.011±0.091 vs. 0.080±0.122mm/yr, p=0.008). Volumetric wear rate (Figure 2B) for 0mm offsets was significantly lower than the 4mm offsets (30.37±20.45 versus 61.58±42.14mm. 3. /year, p=0.001). Demographic differences existed between the two cohorts (age, gender, femoral head size, and acetabular cup size). However, there were no significant correlations found between linear/volumetric wear rate and any demographic including age, gender, BMI, femoral head size, or acetabular cup size. Validation showed no significant differences between the CAD method used herein and the gold standard method (0.083±0.014 versus 0.093±0.041mm/year, p=0.71). Discussion. This study is the first to show that 0mm offset liners have significantly lower linear and volumetric wear rates than do 4mm offset liners. Despite this difference, no revisions have been required in either cohort. The linear wear rates computed in this study are below literature-reported clinically relevant values for wear-induced-osteolysis (∼0.10mm/year). As such, the clinical impact of this wear rate difference is unknown. The higher wear rate in the offset group may owe to the altered biomechanics of the construct. By lateralizing the femoral head through an offset liner, the femur is lateralized with respect to the patient's center of mass (COM) (Figure 3). To maintain stability, the patient must pull the COM over the femoral head by increasing force from the hip abductors. This increased force is transmitted through the polyethylene acetabular liner. Thus, increased wear may result from the forces required to maintain balance in gait. Further work is needed to determine whether these higher wear rates will have clinical sequelae

The purpose of this study is to assess the clinical outcome and gait analysis of a new technique for ankle arthrodesis using a Fibular Sparing Z Osteotomy (FSZO). The FSZO technique for ankle arthrodesis utilises a lateral approach where the fibula is osteotomised and reflected posteriorly on a soft tissue hinge to allow easy access to the ankle joint for an anatomic arthrodesis. Outcome assessment at six months follow up included health related quality of life (SF36) and joint specific (American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot, Ankle Osteoarthritis Scale, Foot Function Index) clinical outcome scores. Gait Analysis was completed using the Walkabout Portable Gait Monitor® which includes a wireless gait belt housing a triaxial arrangement of accelerometers, resting behind the lumbar vertebrae, approximately at position of centre of mass to quatintfy surgery, lurch and functional limb length difference (LLD). There was a significant improvement in the health related quality of life and the joint specific clinical outcome scores at six months follow up. The six month gait study preliminary analysis showed improvement in some parameters of gait but worsening in others. The FSZO ankle arthrodesis technique provides improvement in clinical outcome scores and certain gait parameters at early follow up

Introduction. Patients with knee osteoarthritis frequently complain that they develop pain in other joints due to over-loading during gait. However, there have been no previous studies examining the effect of knee arthritis on the other weight bearing joints. The aim of this study was to examine the loading of the hips and contra-lateral knee during gait in a cohort of patients pre- and post knee replacement. Methods. Twenty patients with single joint osteoarthritis awaiting knee replacement and 20 healthy volunteers were recruited. Gait analysis during level gait and at self selected speed was performed using a 12 camera Vicon motion analysis system. The ground reaction force was collected using EMG electrodes attached to the medial and lateral hamstrings and quadriceps bilaterally. Patients were invited to return 12 months post-operatively. Data was analysed using the Vicon plug-in-gait model and statistical testing was performed with SPSS v16.0 using ANCOVA to account for gait speed. Results. The mean age of the patients was 69 (range 53-82) and the controls was 70 (range 60-83). Mid-stance moments and knee adduction impulses were elevated at both hips and both knees in patients compared to normal individuals (Impulses: OA Knee=1.87Nms; opposite knee=1.46Nms; controls=0.86Nms; p<0.01) whilst peak moments were not significantly different. Muscular co-contraction was elevated in both knees compared to normal (p<0.01). Ten patients returned for follow up. Correction of varus resulted in improvements in moments at the replaced knee however recovery of moments in the other joints was variable and dependant on alignment, gait speed and their ability to mobilise their centre of mass. Conclusion. Patients with single joint knee osteoarthritis have abnormal loading of both knees and both hips, potentially leading to further disease and disability. Recovery following knee replacement is variable and dependant on limb alignment and the patient's functional recovery

For a proper rehabilitation of the knee following knee arthroplasty, a comprehensive understanding of bony and soft tissue structures and their effects on biomechanics of the individual patient is essential. Musculoskeletal models have the potential, however, to predict dynamic interactions of the knee joint and provide knowledge to the understanding of knee biomechanics. Our goal was to develop a generic musculoskeletal knee model which is adaptable to subject-specific situations and to use in-vivo kinematic measurements obtained under full-weight bearing condition in a previous Upright-MRI study of our group for a proper validation of the simulation results. The simulation model has been developed and adapted to subject-specific cases in the multi-body simulation software AnyBody. For the implementation of the knee model a reference model from the AnyBody Repository was adapted for the present issue. The standard hinge joint was replaced with a new complex knee joint with 6DoF. The 3D bone geometries were obtained from an optimized MRI scan and then post-processed in the mesh processing software MeshLab. A homogenous dilation of 3 mm was generated for each bone and used as articulating surfaces. The anatomical locations of viscoelastic ligaments and muscle attachments were determined based on literature data. Ligament parameters, such as elongation and slack length, were adjusted in a calibration study in two leg stance as reference position. For the subject-specific adaptation a general scaling law, taking segment length, mass and fat into account, was used for a global scaling. The scaling law was further modified to allow a detailed adaption of the knee region, e.g. align the subject-specific knee morphology (including ligament and muscle attachments) in the reference model. The boundary conditions were solely described by analytical methods since body motion (apart from the knee region) or force data were not recorded in the Upright-MRI study. Ground reaction forces have been predicted and a single leg deep knee bend was simulated by kinematic constraints, such as that the centre of mass is positioned above the ankle joint. The contact forces in the knee joint were computed using the force dependent kinematic algorithm. Finally, the simulation model was adapted to three subjects, a single leg deep knee bend was simulated, subject-specific kinematics were recorded and then compared to their corresponding in-vivo kinematic measurements data. We were able to simulate the whole group of subjects over the complete range of motion. The tibiofemoral kinematics of three subjects could be simulated showing the overall trend correctly, whereas absolute values partially differ. In conclusion, the presented simulation model is highly adaptable to an individual situation and seems to be suitable to approximate subject-specific knee kinematics without consideration of cartilage and menisci. The model enables sensitivity analyses regarding changes in patient specific knee kinematics following e.g. surgical interventions on bone or soft tissue as well as related to the design and placement of partial or total knee joint replacement. However, model optimisation, a higher case number, sensitivity analyses of selected parameters and a semi-automation of the workflow are parts of our ongoing work

The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of total knee arthroplasty (TKA) on the gait symmetry of patients suffering from osteoarthritis. TKA is an effective method of relieving pain and restoring function but many established outcome measures are subjective and based on patient self-report. This study used clinical gait analysis with the Walkabout Portable Gait MonitorTM (WPGM) to describe pre and post-operative function in a more objective manner. The WPGM is a tri-axial arrangement of accelerometers that a subject wears around the waist, approximating the position of the center of mass (COM). Twenty-one TKA patients underwent a standardised WPGM assessment (a walk at a self-selected speed along a 50m hospital corridor) and completed the WOMAC and SF-36 subjective questionnaires preoperatively and three years after surgery. Data was recorded at 200 Hz for approximately twenty to twenty-five seconds. Automated Fast Fourier transformations (FFT) of the displacement data in three axes yields data on the ‘repeating irregularities’ that result from musculoskeletal injury or compensatory mechanisms and provides three clinically significant ratios Surge (asymmetry in the gait cycle in the forward direction), Lurch (side to side displacements that becomes asymmetrical with unilateral pathology) and Functional Leg Length Difference (FLLD) (asymmetry in vertical displacement during the gait cycle). Paired t-tests show that mean Surge (p< 0.006), FLLD (p< 0.0001) and Lurch (p< 0.008) were reduced following TKA for treatment of osteoarthritis. This is evidence that the asymmetry of gait was successfully reduced and subsequently overall gait was improved following surgical intervention. Patients’ WOMAC and SF-36 questionnaires showed significant improvements in patient pain, stiffness and physical function post-operatively (p’s< 0.01). Advantages of using the WPGM in addition to standard patient self-report questionnaires include the ease of testing, quick analysis and ability to detect musculo-skeletal health changes that might otherwise be masked by extraneous variables. A small subset of patients did not realise significant improvement in gait parameters post-operatively. On closer inspection, these patients had near normal gait patterns pre-operatively. This suggests the WPGM has great potential for objectively prioritizing patients waiting for TKA and assessing post-operative outcome

Summary Statement. Simulated increases in body weight led to increased displacement, von Mises stress, and contact pressure in finite element models of the extended and flexed knee. Contact shifted to locations of typical medial osteoarthritis lesions in the extended knee models. Introduction. Obesity is commonly associated with increased risk of osteoarthritis (OA). The effects of increases in body weight and other loads on the stresses and strains within a joint can be calculated using finite element (FE) models. The specific effects for different individuals can be calculated using subject-specific FE models which take individual geometry and forces into account. Model results can then be used to propose mechanisms by which damage within the joint may initiate. Patients & Methods. Twelve subject-specific FE models (Abaqus 6.11) of three normal healthy subjects were created by combining geometry (3T T1-weighted MRI scans processed using Mimics 13.0, Geomagic Studio 11, and SolidWorks 2010) and load cases (Vicon and AMTI motion analysis data processed within AnyBody Technology Version 3.0 and Matlab R2007a). Model geometry included the femur and tibia (rigid bodies), tibial cartilage and femoral cartilage (E = 12 MPa, ν = 0.45), and menisci (E. circumferential. = 120 MPa, ν. circumferential. = 0.2; E. axial/radial. = 20 MPa, ν. axial/radial. = 0.3). The tibia was held fixed while loads were applied to the centre of mass of the femur. Frictional contact (µ = 0.02) was modelled between soft tissues. Of the twelve models, six were of extended knees and six were of mid-range flexed (∼50°) knees. Each of these six models represented a paired set: a “normal” model and an “increased-load” model. In the flexed knee “increased-load” models, loads were doubled; in the extended knee “increased-load” models, loads were increased to a standard 2000 N compressive load across the joint (approximately three to four times larger than the original loads). Maximum displacements, von Mises stresses, and contact pressures on the articulating tibial cartilage and femoral cartilage surfaces were calculated; results of the “normal” and “increased-load” models were compared. Results. Increasing the applied loads increased the maximum displacements, von Mises stresses, and contact pressures. Contact shifted anteriorly in the extended knee models to typical locations of medial OA cartilage lesions. No contact shift occurred in the flexed knee models; contact remained in typical locations of lateral OA cartilage lesions, but the contact area extended in all directions, and displacements, stresses, and pressures increased. Discussion/Conclusion. Comparing the “normal” and “increased-load” results suggested two potential mechanical mechanisms involved in osteoarthritic cartilage lesion development. Contact shifted to areas of previously-unloaded cartilage in the extended knee “increased-load” models. Cartilage has regional material properties, with stiffer cartilage in areas of frequent contact and loading; shifting contact to areas of less-stiff cartilage could damage the cartilage and lead to degenerative diseases such as OA. Contact did not shift in the flexed knee “increased-load” models. Instead, the displacements, stresses, and pressures increased while the centres of contact remained relatively stationary. If these contact variables increase beyond a threshold magnitude, the cartilage could be damaged, potentially leading to OA

While previous studies have highlighted possible aetiological factors for adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS), research employing gait measurements have demonstrated asymmetries in the ground reaction forces, suggesting a relationship between these asymmetries, neurological dysfunction and spinal deformity. Furthermore, investigations have indicated that the kinematic differences in various body segments may be a major contributing factor. This investigation, which formed part of a wider comprehensive study, was aimed at identifying asymmetries in lower limb kinematics and pelvic and back movements during level walking in scoliotic subjects that could be related to the spinal deformity. Additionally, the study examined the time domain parameters of the various components of ground reaction force together with the centre of pressure (CoP) pattern, assessed during level walking, which could be related to the spinal deformity. Although previous studies indicate that force platforms provide good estimation of the static balance of individuals, there remains a paucity of information on dynamic balance during walking. In addition, while research has documented the use of CoP and net joint moments in gait assessment and have assessed centre of mass (CoM)–CoP distance relationships in clinical conditions, there is little information relating to the moments about CoM. Hence, one of the objectives of the present study was to assess and establish the asymmetry in the CoP pattern and moments about CoM during level walking and its relationship to spinal deformity. The investigation employed a six camera movement analysis system and a strain gauge force platform in order to estimate time domain kinetic parameters and other kinematic parameters in the lower extremities, pelvis and back. 16 patients with varying degrees of deformity, scheduled for surgery within a week took part in the study. The data for the right and left foot was collected from separate trials of normal walking. CoP was then estimated using the force and moment components from the force platform. Results indicate differences across the subjects depending on the laterality of the major curve. There is an evidence of a relationship between the medio-lateral direction CoP and the laterality of both the main and compensation curves. This is not evident in the anterior-posterior direction. Similar results were recorded for moments about CoM. Subjects with a higher left compensation curve had greater deviation to the left. Furthermore, the results show that the variables identified in this study can be applied to initial screening and surgical evaluation of spinal deformities such as scoliosis. Further studies are being undertaken to validate these findings

Introduction: In children with MMC characteristic kinematic gait patterns and center of mass motion have been identified for different lumbo-sacral levels, which may vary in specific muscle paresis definitions and ambulatory outcome. The goal was to investigate compensatory movements employed in MMC in groups with successive paresis in the following major muscle groups: plantarflexors, dorsiflexors, hip abductors and hip extensors. Patients and Methods: 28 children with MMC (m=10.3 y), walking independently participated in a gait study. A classification based on paresis on the primary muscle groups was established using standard Manual Muscle Test (MMT). Five groups of MMC were established based on successive paresis (0-2 MMT) of the plantarflexors,dor-siflexors, hip abductors, and hip extensors. Subjects were tested in their habitual orthoses, if any. All children underwent full-body three-dimensional gait analysis (VICON, Oxford). Five kinematic cycles from each side were analyzed and group averages were calculated. Results: The most striking compensatory movements were observed in the frontal and transverse planes in the trunk, pelvis, and hips. Trunk sway increased sequentially from Groups 1 to 5, with the largest interval occurring at the onset of hip abductor paresis (Group 4). Trunk and pelvic rotation were observed to completely alter at the onset of hip abductor paresis (Group 4), where an internal position occurs during stance and external during swing. ‘Pelvic hike,’ or the lifting of the pelvis during swing, was observed in as early as Group 2 with plantarflexor paresis, becoming more pronounced in the latter groups. Large hip abduction was observed during stance at the onset of hip abductor paresis (Group 4). The onset of dorsiflexor paresis result in few kinematic changes since all subjects in Groups 2 and 3 wore orthoses. Sagittal plane differences were observed at the onset of hip extensor paresis (Group 5), where the trunk and pelvis were more posteriorly tipped and hips less flexed. Discussion The classification method aids in understanding the specific compensatory mechanisms employed when the muscle functions are successively lost. Plantarflexor paresis is evident in all three planes in even the trunk. Abductor weakness results in large frontal and transverse plane changes. Hip extensor weakness is mostly evident in the sagittal plane. By understand-ingthe characteristic movements employed, an improved basis for evaluation and treatment can be established

Introduction Sagittal balance is a combination of a balance function (T1 maintained vertically over S1) that partially constrains the spine, the passive constraints provided by soft tissues and the active constraints – muscle force and gravity. Normal standing posture is likely to be the posture of minimum muscle activity and soft tissue energy. Observed deviation from this position would require muscle action. A mathematical model describing spinal balance without muscle activity is described. Methods The spine was modeled as a series of articulations between the hip and T1 that were controlled by a third degree polynomial ‘spring’ function that approximates the force displacement curves as measured by Panjabi et al. T1 was constrained to remain over S1. Geometric data imported from the erect radiograph of a 34 female without back pain was used to set the zero point for the stiffness functions. All spring functions except the hip function were identical. The system was then perturbed by changing the rest disc space (or hip) angles. An initial smoothing function was used to ‘distribute’ this perturbation amongst several adjacent vertebrae as a guess. The model then minimized the total soft tissue energy to find the new position by treating the system as a series of damped rotational spring – mass constructs. Minimization was achieved using Euler’s method to solve a system of second order nonlinear ordinary differential equations. The iterations were run until oscillations ceased. The model was then perturbed by creating a series of kyphotic deformities at multiple levels and the results were observed. Results Most perturbations converged to a minimum solution almost instantly. With the hip fixed, it was found that kyphotic deformities in the lower and mid lumbar spine led to compensatory lordosis at most other levels – particularly at the apex of the thoracic kyphosis. The spine tended to straighten and lengthen (possibly causing a rise in the centre of mass of the body). This tendency was substantially mitigated by allowing the hip joint to move. By trial and error, a spring function with of one tenth of the stiffness allowed the centre of gravity to move minimally and the compensatory lordosis occurred at segments closer to the induced kyphosis. When an apical thoracic kyphosis was applied with a fixed hip, the spine shortened with compensation being mostly by lordosis in the upper lumbar spine. When the hip was allowed to flex the tendency was for some of the compensation to occur at hip and for the spine to shorten further. The compensatory lordosis that developed at the level above an induced lumbar kyphosis could be partially corrected by applying a flexion moment. However as there is no muscle that is capable of applying such a moment over a single segment an alternative approach suggested that the hyperlordosis could be reduced by applying an extension moment to multiple segments above the hyperlordotic level. Discussion Sagittal Spinal balance is complex. A minimum energy stiffness model may lead to further understanding of spinal balance. The prototype model suggests that the hip joint may have a role in preventing excessive lengthening (with a rise in the centre of gravity) of the spine. The model predicts extensor muscle contraction more than one level above a lumbar kyphosis

Background. Balance impairment and falling are of the major health problems in elderly individuals. The ability to maintain standing balance influences the risk of falling while performing everyday activities. Postural control is the base of balance that is the result of collaboration of visual, vestibular and somatosensory systems. Single leg stance test is a simple clinical method to evaluate static balance. In this test, the center of body mass is on a small support level and need to make corrective movements to create balance by postural control system. Kinesiotaping and stretching of ankle plantar flexor muscles used in physical therapy are effective in improvement of postural balance. Kinesiotaping is effective in maintaining balance by activates cutaneous receptors and promoting alpha motor neuron stimulation. Moreover, stretching is a common treatment used to prevent muscle shortness and increase the range of motion that improves the balance. Aim. Therefore the aim of current study was to compare the effects of these two methods in elderly women and men on ankle plantar flexor muscles which are effective to maintain postural status. Materials and Methods. In a single blind randomized clinical trial, 20 elderly male and 20 elderly female were assigned into 2 groups of kinesiotaping and stretching. Inhibitory Y shape tape was applied on the gastrocnemius in first group. In the stretching group, the muscle was stretched for 60 seconds by 4 times. The static balance was examined before and after the interventions by using single leg stance test. In this test, the subjects were asked to stand bare foot on dominant limb and cross their arms over chest. A maximum time for this test is 30 seconds. The researcher who was assessing balance was unaware to the intervention group. Results. According to paired t-test, Despite progress in time to stance on one leg after the interventions, the changes were not significant (P>0.05). Although the trend was more pronounced in the stretching group, independent t-test results showed no significant difference between groups (P>0.05). While in any of the treatment groups, there was no difference between men and women (P=0.1 and P=0.7 for kinesiotaping and stretching group, respectively). Conclusion. While the results did not show any significant difference after the intervention, but Increasing of the test time, which means improving the balance of participants, is evident. However, changes in the stretching group were more pronounced. Keyword. Single leg stance test, Elderly, Stretching, kinesiotaping, Plantar flexor muscle