This review provides a concise outline of the advances made in the care of patients and to the quality of life after a traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) over the last century. Despite these improvements reversal of the neurological injury is not yet possible. Instead, current treatment is limited to providing symptomatic relief, avoiding secondary insults and preventing additional sequelae. However, with an ever-advancing technology and deeper understanding of the damaged spinal cord, this appears increasingly conceivable. A brief synopsis of the most prominent challenges facing both clinicians and research scientists in developing functional treatments for a progressively complex injury are presented. Moreover, the multiple mechanisms by which damage propagates many months after the original injury requires a multifaceted approach to ameliorate the human spinal cord. We discuss potential methods to protect the spinal cord from damage, and to manipulate the inherent inhibition of the spinal cord to regeneration and repair. Although acute and chronic SCI share common final pathways resulting in cell death and neurological deficits, the underlying putative mechanisms of chronic SCI and the treatments are not covered in this review

Aims. The aim of this study was to determine whether early surgical treatment results in better neurological recovery 12 months after injury than late surgical treatment in patients with acute traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI). Methods. Patients with tSCI requiring surgical spinal decompression presenting to 17 centres in Europe were recruited. Depending on the timing of decompression, patients were divided into early (≤ 12 hours after injury) and late (> 12 hours and < 14 days after injury) groups. The American Spinal Injury Association neurological (ASIA) examination was performed at baseline (after injury but before decompression) and at 12 months. The primary endpoint was the change in Lower Extremity Motor Score (LEMS) from baseline to 12 months. Results. The final analyses comprised 159 patients in the early and 135 in the late group. Patients in the early group had significantly more severe neurological impairment before surgical treatment. For unadjusted complete-case analysis, mean change in LEMS was 15.6 (95% confidence interval (CI) 12.1 to 19.0) in the early and 11.3 (95% CI 8.3 to 14.3) in the late group, with a mean between-group difference of 4.3 (95% CI -0.3 to 8.8). Using multiply imputed data adjusting for baseline LEMS, baseline ASIA Impairment Scale (AIS), and propensity score, the mean between-group difference in the change in LEMS decreased to 2.2 (95% CI -1.5 to 5.9). Conclusion. Compared to late surgical decompression, early surgical decompression following acute tSCI did not result in statistically significant or clinically meaningful neurological improvements 12 months after injury. These results, however, do not impact the well-established need for acute, non-surgical tSCI management. This is the first study to highlight that a combination of baseline imbalances, ceiling effects, and loss to follow-up rates may yield an overestimate of the effect of early surgical decompression in unadjusted analyses, which underpins the importance of adjusted statistical analyses in acute tSCI research. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):400–411

Aims. Non-coding microRNA (miRNA) in extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may promote neuronal repair after spinal cord injury (SCI). In this paper we report on the effects of MSC-EV-microRNA-381 (miR-381) in a rodent model of SCI. Methods. In the current study, the luciferase assay confirmed a binding site of bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4) and Wnt family member 5A (WNT5A). Then we detected expression of miR-381, BRD4, and WNT5A in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) cells treated with MSC-isolated EVs and measured neuron apoptosis in culture by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining. A rat model of SCI was established to detect the in vivo effect of miR-381 and MSC-EVs on SCI. Results. We confirmed an interaction between miR-381 and BRD4, and showed that miR-381 overexpression inhibited the expression of BRD4 in DRG cells as well as the apoptosis of DRG cells through WNT5A via activation of Ras homologous A (RhoA)/Rho-kinase activity. Moreover, treatment of MSC-EVs rescued neuron apoptosis and promoted the recovery of SCI through inhibition of the BRD4/WNT5A axis. Conclusion. Taken altogether, miR-381 derived from MSC-EVs can promote the recovery of SCI through BRD4/WNT5A axis, providing a new perspective on SCI treatment. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(5):328–339

Initial treatment of traumatic spinal cord injury remains as controversial in 2023 as it was in the early 19th century, when Sir Astley Cooper and Sir Charles Bell debated the merits or otherwise of surgery to relieve cord compression. There has been a lack of high-class evidence for early surgery, despite which expeditious intervention has become the surgical norm. This evidence deficit has been progressively addressed in the last decade and more modern statistical methods have been used to clarify some of the issues, which is demonstrated by the results of the SCI-POEM trial. However, there has never been a properly conducted trial of surgery versus active conservative care. As a result, it is still not known whether early surgery or active physiological management of the unstable injured spinal cord offers the better chance for recovery. Surgeons who care for patients with traumatic spinal cord injuries in the acute setting should be aware of the arguments on all sides of the debate, a summary of which this annotation presents. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):347–355

We report a case of local compression-induced transient femoral nerve palsy in a 46-year-old man. He had previously undergone surgical release of the soft tissues anterior to both hip joints because of contractures following spinal injury. An MRI scan confirmed a synovial cyst originating from the left hip joint, lying adjacent to the femoral nerve. The cyst expanded on standing, causing a transient femoral nerve palsy. The symptoms resolved after excision of the cyst.

From 1981 to 1986 we treated 413 patients for acute spinal-cord injuries. We reviewed 356 patients followed for a minimum of two years of whom 71 (20%) developed heterotopic ossification around one or more joints. Heterotopic ossification occurred more often in male patients (23%) than in female (10%), and was most frequent in the 20- to 30-year age group. It was also more common after injuries of the lower cervical or thoracic spine than after those of the lumbar spine. Patients with severe neurological deficits (Frankel grades A and B) showed significantly more heterotopic ossification but there was no correlation with the number or severity of associated head and limb injuries. Serum calcium levels did not change significantly in either group for 30 weeks after injury, but the erythrocyte sedimentation rate and the alkaline phosphatase level were significantly increased at six weeks in patients with heterotopic ossification.

Neurogenic heterotopic ossification (NHO) is a disorder of aberrant bone formation affecting one in five patients sustaining a spinal cord injury or traumatic brain injury. Ectopic bone forms around joints in characteristic patterns, causing pain and limiting movement especially around the hip and elbow. Clinical sequelae of neurogenic heterotopic ossification include urinary tract infection, pressure injuries, pneumonia and poor hygiene, making early diagnosis and treatment clinically compelling. However, diagnosis remains difficult with more investigation needed. Our pathophysiological understanding stems from mechanisms of basic bone formation enhanced by evidence of systemic influences from circulating humor factors and perhaps neurological ones. This increasing understanding guides our implementation of current prophylaxis and treatment including the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, bisphosphonates, radiation therapy and surgery and, importantly, should direct future, more effective ones

The August 2024 Spine Roundup. 360. looks at: Laminectomy adjacent to instrumented fusion increases adjacent segment disease; Influence of the timing of surgery for cervical spinal cord injury without bone injury in the elderly: a retrospective multicentre study; Lumbar vertebral body tethering: single-centre outcomes and reoperations in a consecutive series of 106 patients; Machine-learning algorithms for predicting Cobb angle beyond 25° in female adolescent idiopathic scoliosis patients; Pain in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis; Teriparatide prevents surgery for osteoporotic vertebral compression fracture

Aims. Developmental cervical spinal stenosis (DcSS) is a well-known predisposing factor for degenerative cervical myelopathy (DCM) but there is a lack of consensus on its definition. This study aims to define DcSS based on MRI, and its multilevel characteristics, to assess the prevalence of DcSS in the general population, and to evaluate the presence of DcSS in the prediction of developing DCM. Methods. This cross-sectional study analyzed MRI spine morphological parameters at C3 to C7 (including anteroposterior (AP) diameter of spinal canal, spinal cord, and vertebral body) from DCM patients (n = 95) and individuals recruited from the general population (n = 2,019). Level-specific median AP spinal canal diameter from DCM patients was used to screen for stenotic levels in the population-based cohort. An individual with multilevel (≥ 3 vertebral levels) AP canal diameter smaller than the DCM median values was considered as having DcSS. The most optimal cut-off canal diameter per level for DcSS was determined by receiver operating characteristic analyses, and multivariable logistic regression was performed for the prediction of developing DCM that required surgery. Results. A total of 2,114 individuals aged 64.6 years (SD 11.9) who underwent surgery from March 2009 to December 2016 were studied. The most optimal cut-off canal diameters for DcSS are: C3 < 12.9 mm, C4 < 11.8 mm, C5 < 11.9 mm, C6 < 12.3 mm, and C7 < 13.3 mm. Overall, 13.0% (262 of 2,019) of the population-based cohort had multilevel DcSS. Multilevel DcSS (odds ratio (OR) 6.12 (95% CI 3.97 to 9.42); p < 0.001) and male sex (OR 4.06 (95% CI 2.55 to 6.45); p < 0.001) were predictors of developing DCM. Conclusion. This is the first MRI-based study for defining DcSS with multilevel canal narrowing. Level-specific cut-off canal diameters for DcSS can be used for early identification of individuals at risk of developing DCM. Individuals with DcSS at ≥ three levels and male sex are recommended for close monitoring or early intervention to avoid traumatic spinal cord injuries from stenosis. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(11):1333–1341

The identification of the extent of neural damage in patients with acute or chronic spinal cord injury is imperative for the accurate prediction of neurological recovery. The changes in signal intensity shown on routine MRI sequences are of limited value for predicting functional outcome. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a novel radiological imaging technique which has the potential to identify intact nerve fibre tracts, and has been used to image the brain for a variety of conditions. DTI imaging of the spinal cord is currently only a research tool, but preliminary studies have shown that it holds considerable promise in predicting the severity of spinal cord injury. . This paper briefly reviews our current knowledge of this technique

The October 2015 Spine Roundup360 looks at: Traumatic spinal cord injury under the spotlight; The odontoid peg nonunion; Driving and spinal surgery; Drains and antibiotics post-spinal surgery; Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty equally effective; Who will benefit from steroid injections?; Back pain following lumbar discectomy

The June 2015 Spine Roundup360 looks at: Less is more in pyogenic vertebral osteomyelitis; Paracetamol out of favour in spinal pain but effective for osteoarthritis; Local wound irrigation to reduce infection?; Lumbar facet joint effusion: a reliable prognostic sign?; SPORT for the octogenarian; Neurological deterioration following traumatic spinal cord injury; PROMS in spinal surgery

We assessed the frequency and causes of neurological deterioration in 59 patients with spinal cord injury on whom reports were prepared for clinical negligence litigation. In those who deteriorated neurologically we assessed the causes of the change in neurology and whether that neurological deterioration was potentially preventable. In all 27 patients (46%) changed neurologically, 20 patients (74% of those who deteriorated) had no primary neurological deficit. Of those who deteriorated, 13 (48%) became Frankel A. Neurological deterioration occurred in 23 of 38 patients (61%) with unstable fractures and/or dislocations; all 23 patients probably deteriorated either because of failures to immobilise the spine or because of inappropriate removal of spinal immobilisation. Of the 27 patients who altered neurologically, neurological deterioration was, probably, avoidable in 25 (excess movement in 23 patients with unstable injuries, failure to evacuate an epidural haematoma in one patient and over-distraction following manipulation of the cervical spine in one patient). If existing guidelines and standards for the management of actual or potential spinal cord injury had been followed, neurological deterioration would have been prevented in 25 of the 27 patients (93%) who experienced a deterioration in their neurological status. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:527–31

High-pressure injection injuries occur infrequently but are usually work-related and involve the non-dominant hand. The neck is a very rare site for such an injury. We describe the management of a 36-year-old man with a high-pressure grease-gun injection injury to his neck causing a cervical spinal cord injury. He developed severe motor and sensory changes which were relieved by surgical removal of the grease through anterior and posterior approaches

In this paper we propose a new classification of neurogenic peri-articular heterotopic ossification (HO) of the hip based on three-dimensional (3D) CT, with the aim of improving pre-operative planning for its excision. . A total of 55 patients (73 hips) with clinically significant HO after either traumatic brain or spinal cord injury were assessed by 3D-CT scanning, and the results compared with the intra-operative findings. At operation, the gross pathological anatomy of the HO as identified by 3D-CT imaging was confirmed as affecting the peri-articular hip muscles to a greater or lesser extent. We identified seven patterns of involvement: four basic (anterior, medial, posterior and lateral) and three mixed (anteromedial, posterolateral and circumferential). Excellent intra- and inter-observer agreement, with kappa values > 0.8, confirmed the reproducibility of the classification system. We describe the different surgical approaches used to excise the HO which were guided by the 3D-CT findings. Resection was always successful. . 3D-CT imaging, complemented in some cases by angiography, allows the surgeon to define the 3D anatomy of the HO accurately and to plan its surgical excision with precision. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:899–904

Twenty-two cases of paraplegia complicating injury of the cervical column have been reviewed. The vertebral injury may be due to flexion or hyperextension violence. Flexion injury—There are three types of flexion injury: 1) dislocation; 2) compression fracture of a vertebral body; 3) acute retropulsion of an intervertebral disc. Evidence is presented in support of the view that disc protrusion is the cause of the cord lesion when there is no radiographic evidence of bone injury, and in some cases at least when there is a compression fracture. Treatment is discussed and the indications for caliper traction and laminectomy are presented. Hyperextension injurv—There are two types of hyperextension injury: 1) dislocation; 2) injury to arthritic spines. Hyperextension injury of an arthritic spine is the usual cause of paraplegia in patients over fifty years of age. The mechanism of hyperextension injury is described. The possible causes of spinal cord injury, and its treatment, are discussed

Aims

The optimal procedure for the treatment of ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) remains controversial. The aim of this study was to compare the outcome of anterior cervical ossified posterior longitudinal ligament en bloc resection (ACOE) with posterior laminectomy and fusion with bone graft and internal fixation (PTLF) for the surgical management of patients with this condition.