Aims. Paediatric fractures are highly prevalent and are most often treated with plaster. The application and removal of plaster is often an anxiety-inducing experience for children. Decreasing the anxiety level may improve the patients’ satisfaction and the quality of healthcare. Virtual reality (VR) has proven to effectively distract children and reduce their anxiety in other clinical settings, and it seems to have a similar effect during plaster treatment. This study aims to further investigate the effect of VR on the anxiety level of children with fractures who undergo plaster removal or replacement in the plaster room. Methods. A randomized controlled trial was conducted. A total of 255 patients were included, aged five to 17 years, who needed plaster treatment for a fracture of the upper or lower limb. Randomization was stratified for age (five to 11 and 12 to 17 years). The intervention group was distracted with VR goggles and headphones during the plaster treatment, whereas the control group received standard care. As the primary outcome, the post-procedural level of anxiety was measured with the Child Fear Scale (CFS). Secondary outcomes included the children’s anxiety reduction (difference between CFS after and CFS before plaster procedure), numerical rating scale (NRS) pain, NRS satisfaction of the children and accompanying parents/guardians, and the children’s heart rates during the procedure. An independent-samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test (depending on the data distribution) were used to analyze the data. Results. The post-procedural CFS was significantly lower (p < 0.001) in the intervention group (proportion of children with no anxiety = 78.6%) than in the control group (56.8%). The anxiety reduction, NRS pain and satisfaction scores, and heart rates showed no significant differences between the control group and the intervention group. Subanalyses showed an increased effect of VR on anxiety levels in young patients, females, upper limb fractures, and those who had had previous plaster treatment. Conclusion. VR effectively reduces the anxiety levels of children in the plaster room, especially in young girls. No statistically significant effects were seen regarding pain, heart rate, or satisfaction scores. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(7):728–734

Aims. To investigate the risk factors for unsuccessful radial head reduction (RHR) in children with chronic Monteggia fractures (CMFs) treated surgically. Methods. A total of 209 children (mean age 6.84 years (SD 2.87)), who underwent surgical treatment for CMFs between March 2015 and March 2023 at six institutions, were retrospectively reviewed. Assessed risk factors included age, sex, laterality, dislocation direction and distance, preoperative proximal radial metaphysis width, time from injury to surgery, reduction method, annular ligament reconstruction, radiocapitellar joint fixation, ulnar osteotomy, site of ulnar osteotomy, preoperative and postoperative ulnar angulation, ulnar fixation method, progressive ulnar distraction, and postoperative cast immobilization. Independent-samples t-test, chi-squared test, and logistic regression analysis were used to identify the risk factors associated with unsuccessful RHR. Results. Redislocation occurred during surgery in 48 patients (23%), and during follow-up in 44 (21.1%). The mean follow-up of patients with successful RHR was 13.25 months (6 to 78). According to the univariable analysis, time from injury to surgery (p = 0.002) and preoperative dislocation distance (p = 0.042) were identified as potential risk factors for unsuccessful RHR. However, only time from injury to surgery (p = 0.007) was confirmed as a risk factor by logistic regression analysis. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis and chi-squared test confirmed that a time from injury to surgery greater than 1.75 months increased the rate of unsuccessful RHR above the cutoff (p = 0.002). Conclusion. Time from injury to surgery is the primary independent risk factor for unsuccessful RHR in surgically treated children with CMFs, particularly in those with a time from injury to surgery of more than 1.75 months. No other factors were found to influence the incidence of unsuccessful RHR. Surgical reduction of paediatric CMFs should be performed within the first two months of injury whenever possible. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(7):581–591

Aims. The aim of this trial was to assess the cost-effectiveness of a soft bandage and immediate discharge, compared with rigid immobilization, in children aged four to 15 years with a torus fracture of the distal radius. Methods. A within-trial economic evaluation was conducted from the UK NHS and personal social services (PSS) perspective, as well as a broader societal point of view. Health resources and quality of life (the youth version of the EuroQol five-dimension questionnaire (EQ-5D-Y)) data were collected, as part of the Forearm Recovery in Children Evaluation (FORCE) multicentre randomized controlled trial over a six-week period, using trial case report forms and patient-completed questionnaires. Costs and health gains (quality-adjusted life years (QALYs)) were estimated for the two trial treatment groups. Regression was used to estimate the probability of the new treatment being cost-effective at a range of ‘willingness-to-pay’ thresholds, which reflect a range of costs per QALY at which governments are typically prepared to reimburse for treatment. Results. The offer of a soft bandage significantly reduced cost per patient (saving £12.55 (95% confidence interval (CI) -£5.30 to £19.80)) while QALYs were similar (QALY difference between groups: 0.0013 (95% CI -0.0004 to 0.003)). The high probability (95%) that offering a bandage is a cost-effective option was consistent when examining the data in a range of sensitivity analyses. Conclusion. In addition to the known clinical equivalence, this study found that the offer of a bandage reduced cost compared with rigid immobilization among children with a torus fracture of the distal radius. While the cost saving was small for each patient, the high frequency of these injuries indicates a significant saving across the healthcare system. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(6):623–630

Aims. To examine the long-term outcome of arthrodesis of the hip undertaken in a paediatric population in treating painful arthritis of the hip. In our patient population, most of whom live rurally in hilly terrain and have limited healthcare access and resources, hip arthrodesis has been an important surgical option for the monoarticular painful hip in a child. Methods. A follow-up investigation was undertaken on a cohort of 28 children previously reported at a mean of 4.8 years. The present study looked at 26 patients who had an arthrodesis of the hip as a child at a mean follow-up of 20 years (15 to 29). Results. The mean Harris Hip Score (HHS) increased from 39.60 (SD 11.06) preoperatively to 81.02 (SD 8.86; p = 0.041) at final review. At latest follow-up, the HHS was found to be excellent in four patients (15%), good in 11 (42%), and fair in 11 (42%). A total of 16 patients (62%) reported mild low back pain, five (19%) had moderate pain, and five (19%) patients had no back pain. Mild ipsilateral knee pain was reported by 19 (73%), moderate pain by one (4%), and no pain by six (23%) patients. Mild contralateral hip pain was reported by ten patients (38%), and no pain by 16 (62%). The 36-Item Short Form Health Survey scores were very good in four patients (15%), good in 18 (70%), and poor in four (15%), with a mean score of 70.92 (SD 12.65). Of 13 female patients who had given birth, 12 did so with uncomplicated vaginal delivery. All patients had to modify their posture for toileting, putting on lower body clothes, foot care, and putting on shoes. Conclusion. Our results show that with hip arthrodesis, most patients have relatively good function at long-term follow-up, although some pain is experienced in adjacent joints, and modification in some activities of daily living is common. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(9):1089–1094

Aims. To compare changes in gait kinematics and walking speed 24 months after conventional (C-MLS) and minimally invasive (MI-MLS) multilevel surgery for children with diplegic cerebral palsy (CP). Methods. A retrospective analysis of 19 children following C-MLS, with mean age at surgery of 12 years five months (seven years ten months to 15 years 11 months), and 36 children following MI-MLS, with mean age at surgery of ten years seven months (seven years one month to 14 years ten months), was performed. The Gait Profile Score (GPS) and walking speed were collected preoperatively and six, 12 and 24 months postoperatively. Type and frequency of procedures as part of MLS, surgical adverse events, and subsequent surgery were recorded. Results. In both groups, GPS improved from the preoperative gait analysis to the six-month assessment with maintenance at 12 and 24 months postoperatively. While reduced at six months in both groups, walking speed returned to preoperative speed by 12 months. The overall pattern of change in GPS and walking speed was similar over time following C-MLS and MI-MLS. There was a median of ten procedures per child as part of both C-MLS (interquartile range (IQR) 8.0 to 11.0) and MI-MLS (IQR 7.8 to 11.0). Surgical adverse events occurred in seven (37%) and 13 (36%) children, with four (21%) and 13 (36%) patients requiring subsequent surgery following C-MLS and MI-MLS, respectively. Conclusion. This study indicates similar improvements in gait kinematics and walking speed 24 months after C-MLS and MI-MLS for children with diplegic CP. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(1):192–197

Aims. Medial humeral epicondyle fractures (MHEFs) are common elbow fractures in children. Open reduction should be performed in patients with MHEF who have entrapped intra-articular fragments as well as displacement. However, following open reduction, transposition of the ulnar nerve is disputed. The aim of this study is to evaluate the need for ulnar nerve exploration and transposition. Methods. This was a retrospective cohort study. The clinical data of patients who underwent surgical treatment of MHEF in our hospital from January 2015 to January 2022 were collected. The patients were allocated to either transposition or non-transposition groups. Data for sex, age, cause of fracture, duration of follow-up, Papavasiliou and Crawford classification, injury-to-surgery time, preoperative ulnar nerve symptoms, intraoperative exploration of ulnar nerve injury, surgical incision length, intraoperative blood loss, postoperative ulnar nerve symptoms, complications, persistent ulnar neuropathy, and elbow joint function were analyzed. Binary logistic regression analysis was used for statistical analysis. Results. A total of 124 patients were followed up, 50 in the ulnar nerve transposition group and 74 in the non-transposition group. There were significant differences in ulnar nerve injury (p = 0.009), incision length (p < 0.001), and blood loss (p = 0.003) between the two groups. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that preoperative ulnar nerve symptoms (p = 0.012) were risk factors for postoperative ulnar nerve symptoms. In addition, ulnar nerve transposition did not affect the occurrence of postoperative ulnar nerve symptoms (p = 0.468). Conclusion. Ulnar nerve transposition did not improve clinical outcomes. It is recommended that the ulnar nerve should not be transposed when treating MHEF operatively. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(2):212–218

Aims. The aim of this study was to compare the surgical and quality-of-life outcomes of children with skeletal dysplasia to those in children with idiopathic early-onset scoliosis (EOS) undergoing growth-friendly management. Patients and Methods. A retrospective review of two prospective multicentre EOS databases identified 33 children with skeletal dysplasia and EOS (major curve ≥ 30°) who were treated with growth-friendly instrumentation at younger than ten years of age, had a minimum two years of postoperative follow-up, and had undergone three or more lengthening procedures. From the same registries, 33 matched controls with idiopathic EOS were identified. A total of 20 children in both groups were treated with growing rods and 13 children were treated with vertical expandable prosthetic titanium rib (VEPTR) instrumentation. Results. Mean preoperative major curves were 76° (34° to 115°) in the skeletal dysplasia group and 75° (51° to 113°) in the idiopathic group (p = 0.55), which were corrected at final follow-up to 49° (13° to 113°) and 46° (12° to 112°; p = 0.68), respectively. T1-S1 height increased by a mean of 36 mm (0 to 105) in the skeletal dysplasia group and 38 mm (7 to 104) in the idiopathic group at the index surgery (p = 0.40), and by 21 mm (1 to 68) and 46 mm (7 to 157), respectively, during the distraction period (p = 0.0085). The skeletal dysplasia group had significantly worse scores in the physical function, daily living, financial impact, and parent satisfaction preoperatively, as well as on financial impact and child satisfaction at final follow-up, than the idiopathic group (all p < 0.05). The domains of the 24-Item Early-Onset Scoliosis Questionnaire (EOSQ24) remained at the same level from preoperative to final follow-up in the skeletal dysplasia group (all p > 0.10). Conclusion. Children with skeletal dysplasia gained significantly less spinal growth during growth-friendly management of their EOS and their health-related quality of life was significantly lower both preoperatively and at final follow-up than in children with idiopathic EOS. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:1563–1569

Aims. The aim of this study was to clarify the factors that predict the development of avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head in children with a fracture of the femoral neck. Patients and Methods. We retrospectively reviewed 239 children with a mean age of 10.0 years (. sd. 3.9) who underwent surgical treatment for a femoral neck fracture. Risk factors were recorded, including age, sex, laterality, mechanism of injury, initial displacement, the type of fracture, the time to reduction, and the method and quality of reduction. AVN of the femoral head was assessed on radiographs. Logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate the independent risk factors for AVN. Chi-squared tests and Student’s t-tests were used for subgroup analyses to determine the risk factors for AVN. Results. We found that age (p = 0.006) and initial displacement (p = 0.001) were significant independent risk factors. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis indicated that 12 years of age was the cut-off for increasing the rate of AVN. Severe initial displacement (p = 0.021) and poor quality of reduction (p = 0.022) significantly increased the rate of AVN in patients aged 12 years or greater, while in those aged less than 12 years, the rate of AVN significantly increased only with initial displacement (p = 0.048). A poor reduction significantly increased the rate of AVN in patients treated by closed reduction (p = 0.026); screw and plate fixation was preferable to cannulated screw or Kirschner wire (K-wire) fixation for decreasing the rate of AVN in patients treated by open reduction (p = 0.034). Conclusion. The rate of AVN increases with age, especially in patients aged 12 years or greater, and with the severity of displacement. In patients treated by closed reduction, anatomical reduction helps to decrease the rate of AVN, while in those treated by open reduction, screw and plate fixation was preferable to fixation using cannulated screws or K-wires. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:1160–1167

Aims. The diagnosis of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is challenging owing to extensive variation in paediatric pelvic anatomy. Artificial intelligence (AI) may represent an effective diagnostic tool for DDH. Here, we aimed to develop an anteroposterior pelvic radiograph deep learning system for diagnosing DDH in children and analyze the feasibility of its application. Methods. In total, 10,219 anteroposterior pelvic radiographs were retrospectively collected from April 2014 to December 2018. Clinicians labelled each radiograph using a uniform standard method. Radiographs were grouped according to age and into ‘dislocation’ (dislocation and subluxation) and ‘non-dislocation’ (normal cases and those with dysplasia of the acetabulum) groups based on clinical diagnosis. The deep learning system was trained and optimized using 9,081 radiographs; 1,138 test radiographs were then used to compare the diagnoses made by deep learning system and clinicians. The accuracy of the deep learning system was determined using a receiver operating characteristic curve, and the consistency of acetabular index measurements was evaluated using Bland-Altman plots. Results. In all, 1,138 patients (242 males; 896 females; mean age 1.5 years (SD 1.79; 0 to 10) were included in this study. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve, sensitivity, and specificity of the deep learning system for diagnosing hip dislocation were 0.975, 276/289 (95.5%), and 1,978/1,987 (99.5%), respectively. Compared with clinical diagnoses, the Bland-Altman 95% limits of agreement for acetabular index, as determined by the deep learning system from the radiographs of non-dislocated and dislocated hips, were -3.27° - 2.94° and -7.36° - 5.36°, respectively (p < 0.001). Conclusion. The deep learning system was highly consistent, more convenient, and more effective for diagnosing DDH compared with clinician-led diagnoses. Deep learning systems should be considered for analysis of anteroposterior pelvic radiographs when diagnosing DDH. The deep learning system will improve the current artificially complicated screening referral process. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(11):1574–1581

Aims. To determine the normal values and usefulness of the C1/4 space available for spinal cord (SAC) ratio and C1 inclination angle, which are new radiological parameters for assessing atlantoaxial instability in children with Down syndrome. Patients and Methods. We recruited 272 children with Down syndrome (including 14 who underwent surgical treatment), and 141 children in the control group. All were aged between two and 11 years. The C1/4 SAC ratio, C1 inclination angle, atlas-dens interval (ADI), and SAC were measured in those with Down syndrome, and the C1/4 SAC ratio and C1 inclination angle were measured in the control group. Results. The mean C1/4 SAC ratio in those requiring surgery with Down syndrome, those with Down syndrome not requiring surgery and controls were 0.63 (standard deviation (. sd. ) 0.1), 1.15 (. sd . 0.13) and 1.29 (. sd. 0.14), respectively, and the mean C1 inclination angles were -3.1° (. sd.  10.7°), 15.8° (. sd. 7.3) and 17.2° (. sd. 7.3), in these three groups, respectively. The mean ADI and SAC in those with Down syndrome requiring surgery and those with Down syndrome not requiring surgery were 9.8 mm (. sd. 2.8) and 4.3 mm (. sd. 1.0), and 11.1 mm (. sd. 2.6) and 18.5 mm (. sd. 2.4), respectively. Conclusion. The normal values of the C1/4 SAC ratio and the C1 inclination angle were found to be about 1.2° and 15º, respectively. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1704–10

Aims. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the long-term outcome of adolescents with cerebral palsy who have undergone single-event multilevel surgery for a flexed-knee gait, followed into young adulthood using 3D motion analysis. Patients and Methods. A total of 59 young adults with spastic cerebral palsy, with a mean age of 26 years (. sd.  3), were enrolled into the study in which their gait was compared with an evaluation that had taken place a mean of 12 years (. sd.  2) previously. At their visits during adolescence, the children walked with excessive flexion of the knee at initial contact and surgical or therapeutic interventions were not controlled between visits. Results. Based on the change in flexed-knee gait over approximately ten years, improvements were seen in increased Gait Deviation Index (p < 0.001) and decreased flexion of the knee at initial contact (p < 0.001). Greater popliteal angle (p < 0.001), reduced Gross Motor Function Measure section D (p = 0.006), and reduced speed of gait (p = 0.007) suggested a mild decline in function. Quality-of-life measures showed that these patients fell within normal limits compared with typical young adults in areas other than physical function. Conclusion. While some small significant changes were noted, little clinically significant change was seen in function and gait, with gross motor function maintained between adolescence and young adulthood. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:549–56

Aims. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in femoral trochlear morphology following surgical correction of recurrent patellar dislocation associated with trochlear dysplasia in children. Patients and Methods. A total of 23 patients with a mean age of 9.6 years (7 to 11) were included All had bilateral recurrent patellar dislocation associated with femoral trochlear dysplasia. The knee with traumatic dislocation at the time of presentation or that had dislocated most frequently was treated with medial patellar retinacular plasty (Group S). The contralateral knee served as a control and was treated conservatively (Group C). All patients were treated between October 2008 and August 2013. The mean follow-up was 48.7 months (43 to 56). Axial CT scans were undertaken in all patients to assess the trochlear morphological characteristics on a particular axial image which was established at the point with the greatest epicondylar width based on measurements preoperatively and at the final follow-up. Results. Preoperatively, there were no statistically significant differences between the trochlear morphology in the two groups (sulcus angle, p 0.852; trochlear groove depth, p 0.885; lateral trochlear inclination, p 0.676; lateral-to-medial facet ratio, p 0.468; lateral condylar height, p 0.899; medial condylar height, p 0.816). Many radiological parameters of trochlear morphology were significantly different between the two groups at the final follow-up, including well-known parameters, such as the mean sulcus angle (Group S, 146.27° (. sd. 7.18); Group C, 160.61° (. sd. 9.29); p < 0.001), the mean trochlear groove depth (Group S, 6.25 mm (. sd. 0.41); Group C, 3.48 mm (. sd. 0.65); p < 0.001) and the mean lateral trochlear inclination (Group S, 20.99° (. sd. 3.87); Group C, 12.18° (. sd. 1.85); p < 0.001). Lesser known parameters such as the ratio of the lateral to medial trochlear length (Group S, 1.46 (. sd. 0.19); Group C, 2.14 (. sd. 0.42); p < 0.001), which is a measurement of facet asymmetry, and the lateral and medial condylar height were also significantly different between the two groups (p < 0.001). Conclusion. The femoral trochlear morphology can be improved by early (before epiphyseal closure) surgical correction in children with recurrent patellar dislocation associated with femoral trochlear dysplasia. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:811–21

Forearm fractures in children have a tendency to displace in a cast leading to malunion with reduced functional and cosmetic results. In order to identify risk factors for displacement, a total of 247 conservatively treated fractures of the forearm in 246 children with a mean age of 7.3 years (. sd. 3.2; 0.9 to 14.9) were included in a prospective multicentre study. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to assess risk factors for displacement of reduced or non-reduced fractures in the cast. Displacement occurred in 73 patients (29.6%), of which 65 (89.0%) were in above-elbow casts. The mean time between the injury and displacement was 22.7 days (0 to 59). The independent factors found to significantly increase the risk of displacement were a fracture of the non-dominant arm (p = 0.024), a complete fracture (p = 0.040), a fracture with translation of the ulna on lateral radiographs (p = 0.014) and shortening of the fracture (p = 0.019). Fractures of both forearm bones in children have a strong tendency to displace even in an above-elbow cast. Severe fractures of the non-dominant arm are at highest risk for displacement. Radiographs at set times during treatment might identify early displacement, which should be treated before malunion occurs, especially in older children with less potential for remodelling. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:689–93

McFarland fractures of the medial malleolus in children, also classified as Salter–Harris Type III and IV fractures, are associated with a high incidence of premature growth plate arrest. In order to identify prognostic factors for the development of complications we reviewed 20 children with a McFarland fracture that was treated surgically, at a mean follow-up of 8.9 years (3.5 to 17.4). Seven children (35%) developed premature growth arrest with angular deformity. The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale for all patients was 98.3 (87 to 100) and the mean modified Weber protocol was 1.15 (0 to 5). There was a significant correlation between initial displacement (p = 0.004) and operative delay (p = 0.007) with premature growth arrest. Both risk factors act independently and additively, such that all children with both risk factors developed premature arrest whereas children with no risk factor did not. We recommend that fractures of the medial malleolus in children should be treated by anatomical reduction and screw fixation within one day of injury. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:419–23

A small proportion of children with Gartland type III supracondylar humeral fracture (SCHF) experience troubling limited or delayed recovery after operative treatment. We hypothesised that the fracture level relative to the isthmus of the humerus would affect the outcome. We retrospectively reviewed 230 children who underwent closed reduction and percutaneous pinning (CRPP) for their Gartland type III SCHFs between March 2003 and December 2012. There were 144 boys and 86 girls, with the mean age of six years (1.1 to 15.2). The clinico-radiological characteristics and surgical outcomes (recovery of the elbow range of movement, post-operative angulation, and the final Flynn grade) were recorded. Multivariate analysis was employed to identify prognostic factors that influenced outcome, including fracture level. Multivariate analysis revealed that a fracture below the humeral isthmus was significantly associated with poor prognosis in terms of the range of elbow movement (p < 0.001), angulation (p = 0.001) and Flynn grade (p = 0.003). Age over ten years was also a poor prognostic factor for recovery of the range of elbow movement (p = 0.027). This is the first study demonstrating a subclassification system of Gartland III fractures with prognostic significance. This will guide surgeons in peri-operative planning and counselling as well as directing future research aimed at improving outcomes. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:134–40

Aims. Temporary hemiepiphysiodesis (HED) is applied to children and adolescents to correct angular deformities (ADs) in long bones through guided growth. Traditional Blount staples or two-hole plates are mainly used for this indication. Despite precise surgical techniques and attentive postoperative follow-up, implant-associated complications are frequently described. To address these pitfalls, a flexible staple was developed to combine the advantages of the established implants. This study provides the first results of guided growth using the new implant and compares these with the established two-hole plates and Blount staples. Methods. Between January 2013 and December 2016, 138 patients (22 children, 116 adolescents) with genu valgum or genu varum were treated with 285 flexible staples. The minimum follow-up was 24 months. These results were compared with 98 patients treated with 205 two-hole plates and 92 patients treated with 535 Blount staples. In long-standing anteroposterior radiographs, mechanical axis deviations (MADs) were measured before and during treatment to analyze treatment efficiency. The evaluation of the new flexible staple was performed according to the idea, development, evaluation, assessment, long-term (IDEAL) study framework (Stage 2a). Results. Overall, 79% (109/138) of patients treated with flexible staples achieved sufficient deformity correction. The median treatment duration was 16 months (interquartile range (IQR) 8 to 21). The flexible staples achieved a median MAD correction of 1.2 mm/month/HED site (IQR 0.6 to 2.0) in valgus deformities and 0.6 mm/month/HED site (IQR 0.2 to 1.5) in varus deformities. Wound infections occurred in 1%, haematomas and joint effusions in 4%, and implant-associated complications in 1% of patients treated with flexible staples. Valgus AD were corrected faster using flexible staples than two-hole plates and Blount staples. Furthermore, the median MAD after treatment was lower in varus and valgus AD, fewer implant-associated complications were detected, and reduced implantation times were recorded using flexible staples. Conclusion. The flexible staple seems to be a viable option for guided growth, showing comparable or possibly better results regarding correction speed and reducing implant-associated complications. Further comparative studies are required to substantiate these findings. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(3):331–340

Aims. The aim of this study was to determine the consensus best practice approach for the investigation and management of children (aged 0 to 15 years) in the UK with musculoskeletal infection (including septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, pyomyositis, tenosynovitis, fasciitis, and discitis). This consensus can then be used to ensure consistent, safe care for children in UK hospitals and those elsewhere with similar healthcare systems. Methods. A Delphi approach was used to determine consensus in three core aspects of care: 1) assessment, investigation, and diagnosis; 2) treatment; and 3) service, pathways, and networks. A steering group of paediatric orthopaedic surgeons created statements which were then evaluated through a two-round Delphi survey sent to all members of the British Society for Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery (BSCOS). Statements were only included (‘consensus in’) in the final agreed consensus if at least 75% of respondents scored the statement as critical for inclusion. Statements were discarded (‘consensus out’) if at least 75% of respondents scored them as not important for inclusion. Reporting these results followed the Appraisal Guidelines for Research and Evaluation. Results. A total of 133 children’s orthopaedic surgeons completed the first survey, and 109 the second. Out of 43 proposed statements included in the initial Delphi, 32 reached ‘consensus in’, 0 ‘consensus out’, and 11 ‘no consensus’. These 11 statements were then reworded, amalgamated, or deleted before the second Delphi round of eight statements. All eight were accepted as ‘consensus in’, resulting in a total of 40 approved statements. Conclusion. In the many aspects of medicine where relevant evidence is not available for clinicians to base their practice, a Delphi consensus can provide a strong body of opinion that acts as a benchmark for good quality clinical care. We would recommend clinicians managing children with musculoskeletal infection follow the guidance in the consensus statements in this article, to ensure care in all medical settings is consistent and safe. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(7):815–820

Aims. The aim of this study was to produce clinical consensus recommendations about the non-surgical treatment of children with Perthes’ disease. The recommendations are intended to support clinical practice in a condition for which there is no robust evidence to guide optimal care. Methods. A two-round, modified Delphi study was conducted online. An advisory group of children’s orthopaedic specialists consisting of physiotherapists, surgeons, and clinical nurse specialists designed a survey. In the first round, participants also had the opportunity to suggest new statements. The survey included statements related to ‘Exercises’, ‘Physical activity’, ‘Education/information sharing’, ‘Input from other services’, and ‘Monitoring assessments’. The survey was shared with clinicians who regularly treat children with Perthes’ disease in the UK using clinically relevant specialist groups and social media. A predetermined threshold of ≥ 75% for consensus was used for recommendation, with a threshold of between 70% and 75% being considered as ‘points to consider’. Results. A total of 40 participants took part in the first round, of whom 31 completed the second round. A total of 87 statements were generated by the advisory group and included in the first round, at the end of which 31 achieved consensus and were removed from the survey, and an additional four statements were generated. A total of 60 statements were included in the second round and 45 achieved the threshold for consensus from both rounds, with three achieving the threshold for ‘points to consider’. The recommendations predominantly included self-management, particularly relating to advice about exercise and education for children with Perthes’ disease and their families. Conclusion. Children’s orthopaedic specialists have reached consensus on recommendations for non-surgical treatment in Perthes’ disease. These statements will support decisions made in clinical practice and act as a foundation to support clinicians in the absence of robust evidence. The dissemination of these findings and the best way of delivering this care needs careful consideration, which we will continue to explore. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(5):501–507

Aims. The management of fractures of the medial epicondyle is one of the greatest controversies in paediatric fracture care, with uncertainty concerning the need for surgery. The British Society of Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery prioritized this as their most important research question in paediatric trauma. This is the protocol for a randomized controlled, multicentre, prospective superiority trial of operative fixation versus nonoperative treatment for displaced medial epicondyle fractures: the Surgery or Cast of the EpicoNdyle in Children’s Elbows (SCIENCE) trial. Methods. Children aged seven to 15 years old inclusive, who have sustained a displaced fracture of the medial epicondyle, are eligible to take part. Baseline function using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) upper limb score, pain measured using the Wong Baker FACES pain scale, and quality of life (QoL) assessed with the EuroQol five-dimension questionnaire for younger patients (EQ-5D-Y) will be collected. Each patient will be randomly allocated (1:1, stratified using a minimization algorithm by centre and initial elbow dislocation status (i.e. dislocated or not-dislocated at presentation to the emergency department)) to either a regimen of the operative fixation or non-surgical treatment. Outcomes. At six weeks, and three, six, and 12 months, data on function, pain, sports/music participation, QoL, immobilization, and analgesia will be collected. These will also be repeated annually until the child reaches the age of 16 years. Four weeks after injury, the main outcomes plus data on complications, resource use, and school absence will be collected. The primary outcome is the PROMIS upper limb score at 12 months post-randomization. All data will be obtained through electronic questionnaires completed by the participants and/or parents/guardians. The NHS number of participants will be stored to enable future data linkage to sources of routinely collected data (i.e. Hospital Episode Statistics). Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(1):69–77

Aims. The Uppföljningsprogram för cerebral pares (CPUP) Hip Score distinguishes between children with cerebral palsy (CP) at different levels of risk for displacement of the hip. The score was constructed using data from Swedish children with CP, but has not been confirmed in any other population. The aim of this study was to determine the calibration and discriminatory accuracy of this score in children with CP in Scotland. Methods. This was a total population-based study of children registered with the Cerebral Palsy Integrated Pathway Scotland. Displacement of the hip was defined as a migration percentage (MP) of > 40%. Inclusion criteria were children in Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) levels III to V. The calibration slope was estimated and Kaplan-Meier curves produced for five strata of CPUP scores to compare the observed with the predicted risk of displacement of the hip at five years. For discriminatory accuracy, the time-dependent area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) was estimated. In order to analyze differences in the performance of the score between cohorts, score weights, and subsequently the AUC, were re-estimated using the variables of the original score: the child’s age at the first examination, GMFCS level, head shaft angle, and MP of the worst hip in a logistic regression with imputation of outcomes for those with incomplete follow-up. Results. The discriminatory accuracy of the score in the new population of 367 children was high (AUC 0.78 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.71 to 0.86)). The calibration of the score was insufficient (slope 0.48 (95% CI 0.31 to 0.65)), and the absolute risks of displacement of the hip in this population were overestimated. The AUC increased with re-estimated weights (0.85 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.91)). Conclusion. The CPUP Hip Score had a high ability to discriminate between children at different levels of risk for displacement of the hip. The score overestimated the absolute risks of displacement in this population, which may have resulted from differences in the way children were initially registered in the two programmes. The results are promising, but the score weights may need re-estimation before its clinical application in Scotland. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(5):640–644

Aims. Children with spinal dysraphism can develop various musculoskeletal deformities, necessitating a range of orthopaedic interventions, causing significant morbidity, and making considerable demands on resources. This systematic review aimed to identify what outcome measures have been reported in the literature for children with spinal dysraphism who undergo orthopaedic interventions involving the lower limbs. Methods. A PROSPERO-registered systematic literature review was performed following PRISMA guidelines. All relevant studies published until January 2023 were identified. Individual outcomes and outcome measurement tools were extracted verbatim. The measurement tools were assessed for reliability and validity, and all outcomes were grouped according to the Outcome Measures Recommended for use in Randomized Clinical Trials (OMERACT) filters. Results. From 91 eligible studies, 27 individual outcomes were identified, including those related to clinical assessment (n = 12), mobility (n = 4), adverse events (n = 6), investigations (n = 4), and miscellaneous (n = 1). Ten outcome measurement tools were identified, of which Hoffer’s Functional Ambulation Scale was the most commonly used. Several studies used unvalidated measurement tools originally developed for other conditions, and 26 studies developed new measurement tools. On the OMERACT filter, most outcomes reported pathophysiology and/or the impact on life. There were only six patient- or parent-reported outcomes, and none assessed the quality of life. Conclusion. The outcomes that were reported were heterogenous, lack validation and failed to incorporate patient or family perceptions. Until outcomes can be reported unequivocally, research in this area will remain limited. Our findings should guide the development of a core outcome set, which will allow consistency in the reporting of outcomes for this condition. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(3):277–285

Aims. A national screening programme has existed in the UK for the diagnosis of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) since 1969. However, every aspect of screening and treatment remains controversial. Screening programmes throughout the world vary enormously, and in the UK there is significant variation in screening practice and treatment pathways. We report the results of an attempt by the British Society for Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery (BSCOS) to identify a nationwide consensus for the management of DDH in order to unify treatment and suggest an approach for screening. Methods. A Delphi consensus study was performed among the membership of BSCOS. Statements were generated by a steering group regarding aspects of the management of DDH in children aged under three months, namely screening and surveillance (15 questions), the technique of ultrasound scanning (eight questions), the initiation of treatment (19 questions), care during treatment with a splint (ten questions), and on quality, governance, and research (eight questions). A two-round Delphi process was used and a consensus document was produced at the final meeting of the steering group. Results. A total of 60 statements were graded by 128 clinicians in the first round and 132 in the second round. Consensus was reached on 30 out of 60 statements in the first round and an additional 12 in the seond. This was summarized in a consensus statement and distilled into a flowchart to guide clinical practice. Conclusion. We identified agreement in an area of medicine that has a long history of controversy and varied practice. None of the areas of consensus are based on high-quality evidence. This document is thus a framework to guide clinical practice and on which high-quality clinical trials can be developed. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(2):209–214

Aims. The aim of this study was to identify the information topics that should be addressed according to the parents of children with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in the diagnostic and treatment phase during the first year of life. Second, we explored parental recommendations to further optimize the information provision in DDH care. Methods. A qualitative study with semi-structured interviews was conducted between September and December 2020. A purposive sample of parents of children aged younger than one year, who were treated for DDH with a Pavlik harness, were interviewed until data saturation was achieved. A total of 20 interviews with 22 parents were conducted. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, independently reviewed, and coded into categories and themes. Results. Interviews revealed four fundamental information topics that should be addressed in the different phases of the DDH healthcare trajectory: general information (screening phase), patient-specific information (diagnostic and treatment phase), practical information (treatment phase), and future perspectives (treatment and follow-up phase). To further optimize the information provision in DDH care, parents wished for more accessible and trustworthy general information prior to the first hospital visit to be better prepared for the diagnosis. Furthermore, parents wanted more personalized and visually supported information for a better understanding of the nature of the disease and the reason for treatment. Conclusion. This study offers novel insights to optimize the information provision in DDH care. The main finding is the shift in information need from general information in the screening phase to patient-specific information in the diagnostic and treatment phase of DDH. Parents prefer visually-supported information, provided in a timely fashion, and tailored to their child’s situation. These recommendations potentially decrease parental anxiety, insecurity, confusion, and increase parental empowerment and treatment adherence throughout the diagnostic and treatment phase of DDH. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(7):496–506

Aims. The aim of this retrospective cohort study was to assess and investigate the safety and efficacy of using a distal tibial osteotomy compared to proximal osteotomy for limb lengthening in children. Methods. In this study, there were 59 consecutive tibial lengthening and deformity corrections in 57 children using a circular frame. All were performed or supervised by the senior author between January 2013 and June 2019. A total of 25 who underwent a distal tibial osteotomy were analyzed and compared to a group of 34 who had a standard proximal tibial osteotomy. For each patient, the primary diagnosis, time in frame, complications, and lengthening achieved were recorded. From these data, the frame index was calculated (days/cm) and analyzed. Results. All patients ended their treatment with successful lengthening and deformity correction. The frame index for proximal versus distal osteotomies showed no significant difference, with a mean 48.5 days/cm (30 to 85) and 48.9 days/cm (28 to 81), respectively (p = 0.896). In the proximal osteotomy group, two patients suffered complications (one refracture after frame removal and one failure of regenerate maturation with subsequent valgus deformity) compared to zero in the distal osteotomy group. Two patients in each group sustained obstacles that required intervention (one necessitated guided growth, one fibula lengthening, and two required change of wires). There was a similar number of problems (pin-site infections) in each group. Conclusion. Our data show that distal tibial osteotomies can be safely employed in limb lengthening for children using a circular frame, which has implications in planning a surgical strategy; for example, when treating a tibia with shortening and distal deformity, a second osteotomy for proximal lengthening is not required. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(11):1273–1278

Aims. We aimed to describe the epidemiological, biological, and bacteriological characteristics of osteoarticular infections (OAIs) caused by Kingella kingae. Methods. The medical charts of all children presenting with OAIs to our institution over a 13-year period (January 2007 to December 2019) were reviewed. Among these patients, we extracted those which presented an OAI caused by K. kingae and their epidemiological data, biological results, and bacteriological aetiologies were assessed. Results. K. kingae was the main reported microorganism in our paediatric population, being responsible for 48.7% of OAIs confirmed bacteriologically. K. kingae affects primarily children aged between six months and 48 months. The highest prevalence of OAI caused by K. kingae was between seven months and 24 months old. After the patients were 27 months old, its incidence decreased significantly. The incidence though of infection throughout the year showed no significant differences. Three-quarters of patients with an OAI caused by K. kingae were afebrile at hospital admission, 11% had elevated WBCs, and 61.2% had abnormal CRPs, whereas the ESR was increased in 75%, constituting the most significant predictor of an OAI. On MRI, we noted 53% of arthritis affecting mostly the knee and 31% of osteomyelitis located primarily in the foot. Conclusion. K. kingae should be recognized currently as the primary pathogen causing OAI in children younger than 48 months old. Diagnosis of an OAI caused by K. kingae is not always obvious, since this infection may occur with a mild-to-moderate clinical and biological inflammatory response. Extensive use of nucleic acid amplification assays improved the detection of fastidious pathogens and has increased the observed incidence of OAI, especially in children aged between six months and 48 months. We propose the incorporation of polymerase chain reaction assays into modern diagnostic algorithms for OAIs to better identify the bacteriological aetiology of OAIs. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(3):578–583

Aims. The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability and responsiveness to hip surgery of a four-point modified Care and Comfort Hypertonicity Questionnaire (mCCHQ) scoring tool in children with cerebral palsy (CP) in Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) levels IV and V. Methods. This was a population-based cohort study in children with CP from a national surveillance programme. Reliability was assessed from 20 caregivers who completed the mCCHQ questionnaire on two occasions three weeks apart. Test-retest reliability of the mCCHQ was calculated, and responsiveness before and after surgery for a displaced hip was evaluated in a cohort of children. Results. Test-retest reliability for the overall mCCHQ score was good (intraclass correlation coefficient 0.78), and no dimension demonstrated poor reliability. The surgical intervention cohort comprised ten children who had preoperative and postoperative mCCHQ scores at a minimum of six months postoperatively. The mCCHQ tool demonstrated a significant improvement in overall score from preoperative assessment to six-month postoperative follow-up assessment (p < 0.001). Conclusion. The mCCHQ demonstrated responsiveness to intervention and good test-retest reliability. The mCCHQ is proposed as an outcome tool for use within a national surveillance programme for children with CP. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(8):580–583

Aims. The migration percentage (MP) is one criterion used for surgery in dislocated or displaced hips in children with cerebral palsy (CP). The MP at which a displaced hip can no longer return to normal is unclear. The aim of this paper was to identify the point of no return of the MP through a large population-based study. Methods. All children registered on the Cerebral Palsy Integrated Pathway Scotland surveillance programme undergo regular pelvic radiographs. Any child who had a MP measuring over 35% since the programme’s inception in 2013, in at least one hip and at one timepoint, was identified. The national radiography database was then interrogated to identify all pelvic radiographs for each of these children from birth through to the date of analysis. A minimum of a further two available radiographs following the initial measurement of MP ≥ 35% was required for inclusion. Results. A total of 239 children (346 hips) were identified as suitable for analysis at a mean of 6.5 years (2.0 to 14.8) follow-up. In all, 1,485 radiographs taken both prior to and after a hip had a MP ≥ 35% were examined and the MP measured to identify any progression of displacement. Interrogation of the data identified that hips with a MP up to 46% returned to a MP below 40% without intervention, and all hips with a MP equal to or greater than 46% displaced further and the MP did not return to the normal range. Statistical analysis showed the result to be 98% specific with this degree of certainty that hips reaching a MP ≥ 46% would not spontaneously regress. Conclusion. These findings are clinically relevant in showing that it may be reasonable to continue to monitor hips with a MP not exceeding 46%. This threshold will also guide referral for further management of a displacing hip. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(2):411–414

Aims. Hip disease is common in children with cerebral palsy (CP) and can decrease quality of life and function. Surveillance programmes exist to improve outcomes by treating hip disease at an early stage using radiological surveillance. However, studies and surveillance programmes report different radiological outcomes, making it difficult to compare. We aimed to identify the most important radiological measurements and develop a core measurement set (CMS) for clinical practice, research, and surveillance programmes. Methods. A systematic review identified a list of measurements previously used in studies reporting radiological hip outcomes in children with CP. These measurements informed a two-round Delphi study, conducted among orthopaedic surgeons and specialist physiotherapists. Participants rated each measurement on a nine-point Likert scale (‘not important’ to ‘critically important’). A consensus meeting was held to finalize the CMS. Results. Overall, 14 distinct measurements were identified in the systematic review, with Reimer’s migration percentage being the most frequently reported. These measurements were presented over the two rounds of the Delphi process, along with two additional measurements that were suggested by participants. Ultimately, two measurements, Reimer’s migration percentage and femoral head-shaft angle, were included in the CMS. Conclusion. This use of a minimum standardized set of measurements has the potential to encourage uniformity across hip surveillance programmes, and may streamline the development of tools, such as artificial intelligence systems to automate the analysis in surveillance programmes. This core set should be the minimum requirement in clinical studies, allowing clinicians to add to this as needed, which will facilitate comparisons to be drawn between studies and future meta-analyses. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(11):825–831

Aims. Torus fractures of the distal radius are the most common fractures in children. The NICE non-complex fracture guidelines recently concluded that bandaging was probably the optimal treatment for these injuries. However, across the UK current treatment varies widely due to a lack of evidence underpinning the guidelines. The Forearm Fracture Recovery in Children Evaluation (FORCE) trial evaluates the effect of a soft bandage and immediate discharge compared with rigid immobilization. Methods. FORCE is a multicentre, parallel group randomized controlled equivalence trial. The primary outcome is the Wong-Baker FACES pain score at three days after randomization and the primary analysis of this outcome will use a multivariate linear regression model to compare the two groups. Secondary outcomes are measured at one and seven days, and three and six-weeks post-randomization and include the Patient Reported Outcome Measurement Information System (PROMIS) upper extremity limb score, EuroQoL EQ-5D-Y, analgesia use, school absence, complications, and healthcare resource use. The planned statistical and health economic analyses for this trial are described here. The FORCE trial protocol has been published separately. Conclusion. This paper provides details of the planned analyses for this trial, and will reduce the risks of outcome reporting bias and data driven results. Cite this article: Bone Joint Open 2020;1-6:205–213

Aims. Temporary epiphysiodesis (ED) is commonly applied in children and adolescents to treat leg length discrepancies (LLDs) and tall stature. Traditional Blount staples or modern two-hole plates are used in clinical practice. However, they require accurate planning, precise surgical techniques, and attentive follow-up to achieve the desired outcome without complications. This study reports the results of ED using a novel rigid staple (RigidTack) incorporating safety, as well as technical and procedural success according to the idea, development, evaluation, assessment, long-term (IDEAL) study framework. Methods. A cohort of 56 patients, including 45 unilateral EDs for LLD and 11 bilateral EDs for tall stature, were prospectively analyzed. ED was performed with 222 rigid staples with a mean follow-up of 24.4 months (8 to 49). Patients with a predicted LLD of ≥ 2 cm at skeletal maturity were included. Mean age at surgery was 12.1 years (8 to 14). Correction and complication rates including implant-associated problems, and secondary deformities as well as perioperative parameters, were recorded (IDEAL stage 2a). These results were compared to historical cohorts treated for correction of LLD with two-hole plates or Blount staples. Results. The mean LLD was reduced from 25.2 mm (15 to 45) before surgery to 9.3 mm (6 to 25) at skeletal maturity. Implant-associated complications occurred in 4/56 treatments (7%), and secondary frontal plane deformities were detected in 5/45 legs (11%) of the LLD cohort. Including tall stature patients, the rate increased to 12/67 legs (18%). Sagittal plane deformities were observed during 1/45 LLD treatments (2%). Compared to two-hole plates and Blount staples, similar correction rates were observed in all devices. Lower rates of frontal and sagittal plane deformities were observed using rigid staples. Conclusion. Treatment of LLD using novel rigid staples appears a feasible and promising strategy. Secondary frontal and sagittal plane deformities remain a potential complication, although the rate seems to be lower in patients treated with rigid staples. Further comparative studies are needed to investigate this issue. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(8):1428–1437

Aims. The reduction in mobility due to hip diseases in children is likely to affect their physical activity (PA) levels. Physical inactivity negatively influences quality of life and health. Our aim was to objectively measure PA in children with hip disease, and correlate it with the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Mobility Score. Methods. A total of 28 children (12 boys and 16 girls) with hip disease aged between 8and 17 years (mean 12 (SD 3)) were studied between December 2018 and July 2019. Children completed the PROMIS Paediatric Item Bank v. 2.0 – Mobility Short Form 8a and wore a hip accelerometer (ActiGraph) for seven consecutive days. Sedentary time (ST), light PA (LPA), moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA), and vigorous PA were calculated from the accelerometers' data. The PROMIS Mobility score was classified as normal, mild, and moderate functions, based on the PROMIS cut scores on the physical function metric. A one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to assess differences among mobility (normal; mild; moderate) and measured PA and relationships between these variables were assessed using bivariate Pearson correlations. Results. Children classified as normally functioning on the PROMIS had less ST (p = 0.002), higher MVPA, (p = 0.002) and VPA (p = 0.004) compared to those classified as mild or moderate function. A moderate correlation was evident between the overall PROMIS score and daily LPA (r = 0.462, n = 28; p = 0.013), moderate-to-vigorous PA (r = 0.689, n = 28; p = 0.013) and vigorous PA (VPA) (r = 0.535, n = 28; p = 0.013). No correlation was evident between the mean daily ST and overall PROMIS score (r = -0.282, n = 28; p = 0.146). Conclusion. PROMIS Pediatric Mobility tool correlates well with experimentally measured levels of physical activity in children with hip disease. We provide external validity for the use of this tool as a measure of physical activity in children. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(2):405–410

Aims. The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of hip displacement and dislocation in a total population of children with cerebral palsy (CP) in Scotland before and after the initiation of a hip surveillance programme. Patients. A total of 2,155 children with CP are registered in the Cerebral Palsy Integrated Pathway Scotland (CPIPS) surveillance programme, which began in 2013. Physical examination and hip radiological data are collected according to nationally agreed protocols. Methods. Age, Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) level, subtype of CP, migration percentage (MP), and details of hip surgery were analyzed for all children aged between two and 16 years taken from a time of census in March 2019 and compared to the same data from the initial registration of children in the CPIPS. Displacement of the hip was defined as a MP of between 40% and 99%, and dislocation as a MP of 100%. Results. A total of 1,646 children were available for analysis at the time of the census and 1,171 at their first registration in CPIPS. The distribution of age, sex, and GMFCS levels were similar in the two groups. The prevalence of displacement and dislocation of the hip before surveillance began were 10% (117/1,171) and 2.5% (29/1,171) respectively, and at the time of the census were 4.5% (74/1,646) and 1.3% (21/1,646), respectively. Dislocation was only seen in GMFCS levels IV and V and displacement seen in 90.5% (67/74) of these levels and 9.5% (7/74) in levels I to III. In total, 138 children had undergone hip surgery during the study period. The hip redisplaced after the initial surgery in 15 children; seven of these had undergone a second procedure and at the time of the census the hips in all seven had a MP < 40. Conclusion. Hip surveillance appears to be effective and has reduced the prevalence of hip displacement by over half and dislocation almost by half in these children. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(3):383–387

Aims. Given the possible radiation damage and inaccuracy of radiological investigations, particularly in children, ultrasound and superb microvascular imaging (SMI) may offer alternative methods of evaluating new bone formation when limb lengthening is undertaken in paediatric patients. The aim of this study was to assess the use of ultrasound combined with SMI in monitoring new bone formation during limb lengthening in children. Methods. In this retrospective cohort study, ultrasound and radiograph examinations were performed every two weeks in 30 paediatric patients undergoing limb lengthening. Ultrasound was used to monitor new bone formation. The number of vertical vessels and the blood flow resistance index were compared with those from plain radiographs. Results. We categorized the new bone formation into three stages: stage I (early lengthening), in which there was no obvious callus formation on radiographs and ultrasound; stage II (lengthening), in which radiographs showed low-density callus formation with uneven distribution and three sub-stages could be identified on ultrasound: in Ia punctate callus was visible; in IIb there was linear callus formation which was not yet connected and in IIc there was continuous linear callus. In stage III (healing), the bone ends had united, the periosteum was intact, and the callus had disappeared, as confirmed on radiographs, indicating healed bone. A progressive increase in the number of vertical vessels was noted in the early stages, peaking during stages IIb and IIc, followed by a gradual decline (p < 0.001). Delayed healing involved patients with a prolonged stage IIa or those who regressed to stage IIa from stages IIb or IIc during lengthening. Conclusion. We found that the formation of new bone in paediatric patients undergoing limb lengthening could be reliably evaluated using ultrasound when combined with the radiological findings. This combination enabled an improved assessment of the prognosis, and adjustments to the lengthening protocol. While SMI offered additional insights into angiogenesis within the new bone, its role primarily contributed to the understanding of the microvascular environment rather than directly informing adjustments of treatment. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(7):751–758

Aims. Open tibial fractures are limb-threatening injuries. While limb loss is rare in children, deep infection and nonunion rates of up to 15% and 8% are reported, respectively. We manage these injuries in a similar manner to those in adults, with a combined orthoplastic approach, often involving the use of vascularised free flaps. We report the orthopaedic and plastic surgical outcomes of a consecutive series of patients over a five-year period, which includes the largest cohort of free flaps for trauma in children to date. Methods. Data were extracted from medical records and databases for patients with an open tibial fracture aged < 16 years who presented between 1 May 2014 and 30 April 2019. Patients who were transferred from elsewhere were excluded, yielding 44 open fractures in 43 patients, with a minimum follow-up of one year. Management was reviewed from the time of injury to discharge. Primary outcome measures were the rate of deep infection, time to union, and the Modified Enneking score. Results. The mean age of the patients was 9.9 years (2.8 to 15.8), and 28 were male (64%). A total of 30 fractures (68%) involved a motor vehicle collision, and 34 (77%) were classified as Gustilo Anderson (GA) grade 3B. There were 17 (50%) GA grade 3B fractures, which were treated with a definitive hexapod fixator, and 33 fractures (75%) were treated with a free flap, of which 30 (91%) were scapular/parascapular or anterolateral thigh (ALT) flaps. All fractures united at a median of 12.3 weeks (interquartile range (IQR) 9.6 to 18.1), with increasing age being significantly associated with a longer time to union (p = 0.005). There were no deep infections, one superficial wound infection, and the use of 20 fixators (20%) was associated with a pin site infection. The median Enneking score was 90% (IQR 87.5% to 95%). Three patients had a bony complication requiring further surgery. There were no flap failures, and eight patients underwent further plastic surgery. Conclusion. The timely and comprehensive orthoplastic care of open tibial fractures in this series of patiemts aged < 16 years resulted in 100% union and 0% deep infection, with excellent patient-reported functional outcomes. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(6):1160–1167

Aims. This multicentre, retrospective study aimed to improve our knowledge of primary pyogenic spinal infections in children by analyzing a large consecutive case series. Patients and Methods. The medical records of children with such an infection, treated at four tertiary institutions between 2004 and 2014, were analyzed retrospectively. Epidemiological, clinical, paraclinical, radiological, and microbiological data were evaluated. There were 103 children, of whom 79 (76.7%) were aged between six months and four years. Results. We confirmed a significant male predominance in the incidence of primary pyogenic spinal infections in children (65%). The lumbar spine was the most commonly affected region, and 27 infections (26.2%) occurred at L4/5. The white blood cell count was normal in 61 children (59%), and the CRP level was normal in 43 (42%). Blood cultures were performed in 95 children, and were positive in eight (8%). A total of 20 children underwent culture of biopsy or aspiration material, which was positive in eight (40%). Methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) and Kingella (K.) kingae were the most frequently isolated pathogens. Conclusion. MSSA remains the most frequently isolated pathogen in children with primary pyogenic infection of the spine, but K. kingae should be considered as an important pathogen in children aged between six months and four years. Therefore, an empirical protocol for antibiotic treatment should be used, with consideration being made for the triphasic age distribution and specific bacteriological aetiology. In the near future, the results of polymerase chain reaction assay on throat swabs may allow the indirect identification of K. kingae spondylodiscitis in young children and thus aid early treatment. However, these preliminary results require validation by other prospective multicentre studies. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:542–8

Aims. Current American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) guidelines for treating femoral fractures in children aged two to six years recommend early spica casting although some individuals have recommended intramedullary stabilization in this age group. The purpose of this study was to compare the treatment and family burden of care of spica casting and flexible intramedullary nailing in this age group. Methods. Patients aged two to six years old with acute, non-pathological femur fractures were prospectively enrolled at one of three tertiary children’s hospitals. Either early closed reduction with spica cast application or flexible intramedullary nailing was accomplished under general anaesthesia. The treatment method was selected after discussion of the options by the surgeon with the family. Data were prospectively collected on patient demographics, fracture characteristics, complications, pain medication, and union. The Impact on Family Scale was obtained at the six-week follow-up visit. In all, 75 patients were included in the study: 39 in the spica group and 36 in the nailing group. The mean age of the spica group was 2.71 (2.0 to 6.9) years and the mean age of the nailing group was 3.16 (2.0 to 6.9) years. Results. All fractures healed without evidence of malunion or more than 2.0 cm of shortening. The mean Impact on Family score was 70.2 for the spica group and 63.2 (55 to 99) for the nailing group, a statistically significant difference (p = 0.024) in a univariate analysis suggesting less impairment of the family in the intramedullary nailing group. There was no significant difference between pain medication requirements in the first 24 hours postoperatively. Two patients in the spica group and one patient in the intramedullary nailing group required additional treatment under anaesthesia. Conclusion. Both early spica casting and intramedullary nailing were effective methods for treating femoral fractures in children two to six years of age. Intramedullary stabilization provides an option in this age group that may be advantageous in some social situations that depend on the child’s mobility. Fracture treatment should be individualized based on factors that extend beyond anatomical and biological factors. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(8):1056–1061

Aims. The aim of this study was to describe the epidemiology of closed isolated fractures of the femoral shaft in children, and to compare the treatment and length of stay (LOS) between major trauma centres (MTCs) and trauma units (TUs) in England. Patients and Methods. National data were obtained from the Trauma and Audit Research Network for all isolated, closed fractures of the femoral shaft in children from birth to 15 years of age, between 2012 and 2015. Age, gender, the season in which the fracture occurred, non-accidental injury, the mechanism of injury, hospital trauma status, LOS and type of treatment were recorded. Results. A total of 1852 fractures were identified. The mean annual incidence was 5.82 per 100 000 children (95% confidence interval (CI) 5.20 to 6.44). The age of peak incidence was two years for both boys and girls; this decreased with increasing age. Children aged four to six years treated in MTCs were more likely to be managed with open reduction and internal fixation compared with those treated in TUs (odds ratio 3.20; 95% CI 1.12 to 9.14; p = 0.03). The median LOS was significantly less in MTCs than in TUs for children aged between 18 months and three years treated in both a spica (p = 0.005) and traction (p = 0.0004). . Conclusion. This study highlights the current national trends in the management of closed isolated fractures of the femoral shaft in children following activation of major trauma networks in 2012. Future studies focusing on the reasons for the differences which have been identified may help to achieve more consistency in the management of these injuries across the trauma networks. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:109–18

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 16 children treated for spondylodiscitis at our hospital between 2000 and 2007. The mean follow-up was 24 months (12 to 38). There was a mean delay in diagnosis in hospital of 25 days in the ten children aged less than 24 months. At presentation only five of the 16 children presented with localising signs and symptoms. Common presenting symptoms were a refusal to walk or sit in nine children, unexplained fever in six, irritability in five, and limping in four. Plain radiography showed changes in only seven children. The ESR was the most useful investigation when following the clinical course of the disease. Positive blood cultures were obtained in seven children with Staphylococcus aureus being isolated in five. Antibiotics were used in 14 children and spinal bracing in six. Children with spondylodiscitis often present with a confusing clinical picture leading to late diagnosis. The early use of MRI in the investigation of children with an atypical picture may avoid unnecessary delay in starting treatment and possibly prevent long-term problems. All except one of our children had made a complete clinical recovery at final follow-up. However, all six children in the > 24-month age group showed radiological evidence of degenerative changes which might cause problems in the future

Aims. Although atlantoaxial rotatory fixation (AARF) is a common cause of torticollis in children, the diagnosis may be delayed. The condition is characterised by a lack of rotation at the atlantoaxial joint which becomes fixed in a rotated and subluxed position. The management of children with a delayed presentation of this condition is controversial. This is a retrospective study of a group of such children. Patients and Methods. Children who were admitted to two institutions between 1988 and 2014 with a diagnosis of AARF were included. We identified 12 children (four boys, eight girls), with a mean age of 7.3 years (1.5 to 13.4), in whom the duration of symptoms on presentation was at least four weeks (four to 39). All were treated with halo traction followed by a period of cervical immobilisation in a halo vest or a Minerva jacket. We describe a simple modification to the halo traction that allows the child to move their head whilst maintaining traction. The mean follow-up was 59.6 weeks (24 to 156). Results. Despite the delay in referral, the subluxation was successfully reduced in all children. Only two children required atlantoaxial fusion. Conclusion. The results of our study suggest that normal anatomy with restoration of movement may be achieved even in cases of AARF presenting late, obviating the need for fusion. We also show a simple modification to the halo traction that allows the child to move their head about while still maintaining traction. Take home message: Prompt diagnosis and management with halo traction (with a simple modification as described) is associated with good results in patients with AARF who present late. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:715–20

Aims. Open reduction is required following failed conservative treatment of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH). The Ludloff medial approach is commonly used, but poor results have been reported, with rates of the development of avascular necrosis (AVN) varying between 8% and 54%. This retrospective cohort study evaluates the long-term radiographic and clinical outcome of dislocated hips treated using this approach. Patients and Methods. Children with a dislocated hip, younger than one year of age at the time of surgery, who were treated using a medial approach were eligible for the study. Radiographs were evaluated for the degree of dislocation and the presence of an ossific nucleus preoperatively, and for the degree of AVN and residual dysplasia at one and five years and at a mean of 12.7 years (4.6 to 20.8) postoperatively. Radiographic outcome was assessed using the Severin classification, after five years of age. Further surgical procedures were recorded. Functional outcome was assessed using the Pediatric Outcomes Data Collection Instrument (PODCI) or the Hip Disability and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (HOOS), depending on the patient’s age. Results. A total of 52 children (58 hips) were included. At the latest follow-up, 11 hips (19%) showed signs of AVN. Further surgery was undertaken in 13 hips (22%). A total of 13 hips had a poor radiological outcome with Severin type III or higher. Of these, the age at the time of surgery was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than in those with a good Severin type (I or II). The patient-reported outcomes were significantly worse (p < 0.05) in children with a poor Severin classification. Conclusion. This retrospective long-term follow-up study shows that one in five children with DDH who undergo open reduction using a medial surgical approach has poor clinical and/or radiological outcome. The poor outcome is not related to the presence of AVN (19%), but due to residual dysplasia. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:822–7

Aims. Following the introduction of national standards in 2009, most major paediatric trauma is now triaged to specialist units offering combined orthopaedic and plastic surgical expertise. We investigated the management of open tibia fractures at a paediatric trauma centre, primarily reporting the risk of infection and rate of union. Patients and Methods. A retrospective review was performed on 61 children who between 2007 and 2015 presented with an open tibia fracture. Their mean age was nine years (2 to 16) and the median follow-up was ten months (interquartile range 5 to 18). Management involved IV antibiotics, early debridement and combined treatment of the skeletal and soft-tissue injuries in line with standards proposed by the British Orthopaedic Association. Results. There were 36 diaphyseal fractures and 25 distal tibial fractures. Of the distal fractures, eight involved the physis. Motor vehicle collisions accounted for two thirds of the injuries and 38 patients (62%) arrived outside of normal working hours. The initial method of stabilisation comprised: casting in nine cases (15%); elastic nailing in 19 (31%); Kirschner (K)-wiring in 13 (21%); intramedullary nailing in one (2%); open reduction and plate fixation in four (7%); and external fixation in 15 (25%). Wound management comprised: primary wound closure in 24 (39%), delayed primary closure in 11 (18%), split skin graft (SSG) in eight (13%), local flap with SSG in 17 (28%) and a free flap in one. A total of 43 fractures (70%) were Gustilo-Anderson grade III. There were four superficial (6.6%) and three (4.9%) deep infections. Two deep infections occurred following open reduction and plate fixation and the third after K-wire fixation of a distal fracture. No patient who underwent primary wound closure developed an infection. All the fractures united, although nine patients required revision of a mono-lateral to circular frame for delayed union (two) or for altered alignment or length (seven). The mean time to union was two weeks longer in diaphyseal fractures than in distal fractures (13 weeks versus 10.8 weeks, p = 0.016). Children aged > 12 years had a significantly longer time to union than those aged < 12 years (16.3 weeks versus 11.4 weeks, p = 0.045). The length of stay in hospital for patients with a Gustilo-Anderson grade IIIB fracture was twice as long as for less severe injuries. . Conclusion. Fractures in children heal better than those in adults. Based on our experience of deep infection we discourage the use of internal fixation with a plate for open tibial fractures in children. We advocate aggressive initial wound debridement in theatre with early definitive combined orthopaedic and plastic surgery in order to obtain skeletal stabilisation and soft-tissue cover. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:544–53

Aims. Displaced fractures of the lateral condyle of the humerus are frequently managed surgically with the aim of avoiding nonunion, malunion, disturbances of growth and later arthritis. The ideal method of fixation is however not known, and treatment varies between surgeons and hospitals. The aim of this study was to compare the outcome of two well-established forms of surgical treatment, Kirschner wire (K-wire) and screw fixation. Patients and Methods. A retrospective cohort study of children who underwent surgical treatment for a fracture of the lateral condyle of the humerus between January 2005 and December 2014 at two centres was undertaken. Pre, intraoperative and postoperative characteristics were evaluated. A total of 336 children were included in the study. Their mean age at the time of injury was 5.8 years (0 to 15) with a male:female patient ratio of 3:2. A total of 243 (72%) had a Milch II fracture and the fracture was displaced by > 2 mm in 228 (68%). In all, 235 patients underwent K-wire fixation and 101 had screw fixation. . Results. There was a higher rate of nonunion with K-wire fixation (p = 0.02). There was no difference in Baumann’s angle, carrying angle or the rate of major complications between the two groups. No benefit was obtained by immobilizing the elbow for more than four weeks in either group. No short-term complications were seen when fixation crossed the lateral ossific nucleus. Conclusions. Fixation of lateral condylar humeral fractures in children using either K-wires or screws gives satisfactory results. Proponents of both techniques may find justification of their methods in our data, but prospective, randomized trials with long-term follow-up are required to confirm the findings, which suggest a higher rate of nonunion with K-wire fixation. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:387–95

In 1994 a cerebral palsy (CP) register and healthcare programme was established in southern Sweden with the primary aim of preventing dislocation of the hip in these children. The results from the first ten years were published in 2005 and showed a decrease in the incidence of dislocation of the hip, from 8% in a historical control group of 103 children born between 1990 and 1991 to 0.5% in a group of 258 children born between 1992 and 1997. These two cohorts have now been re-evaluated and an additional group of 431 children born between 1998 and 2007 has been added. By 1 January 2014, nine children in the control group, two in the first study group and none in the second study group had developed a dislocated hip (p < 0.001). The two children in the first study group who developed a dislocated hip were too unwell to undergo preventive surgery. Every child with a dislocated hip reported severe pain, at least periodically, and four underwent salvage surgery. Of the 689 children in the study groups, 91 (13%) underwent preventive surgery. A population-based hip surveillance programme enables the early identification and preventive treatment, which can result in a significantly lower incidence of dislocation of the hip in children with CP. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:1546–52

Aims. The aim of this study was to report the clinical, functional and radiological outcomes of children and adolescents with tibial fractures treated using the Ilizarov method. Patients and Methods. Between 2013 and 2016 a total of 74 children with 75 tibial fractures underwent treatment at our major trauma centre using an Ilizarov frame. Demographic and clinical information from a prospective database was supplemented by routine functional and psychological assessment and a retrospective review of the notes and radiographs. Results. Of the 75 fractures, 26 (35%) were open injuries, of which six (8%) had segmental bone loss. There were associated physeal injuries in 18 (24%), and 12 (16%) involved conversion of treatment following failure of previous management. The remaining children had a closed unstable fracture or significant soft-tissue compromise. The median follow-up was 16 months (7 to 31). All fractures united with a median duration in a frame of 3.6 months (interquartile range 3.1 to 4.6); there was no significant difference between the types of fracture and the demographics of the patients. There were no serious complications and no secondary procedures were required to achieve union. Health-related quality of life measures were available for 60 patients (80%) at a minimum of six months after removal of the frame. These indicated a good return to function (median Paediatric quality of life score, 88.0; interquartile range 70.3 to 100). Conclusion. The Ilizarov method is a safe, effective and reliable method for the treatment of complex paediatric tibial fractures. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:396–403

Aims. Preserving growth following limb-salvage surgery of the upper limb in children remains a challenge. Vascularized autografts may provide rapid biological incorporation with the potential for growth and longevity. In this study, we aimed to describe the outcomes following proximal humeral reconstruction with a vascularized fibular epiphyseal transfer in children with a primary sarcoma of bone. We also aimed to quantify the hypertrophy of the graft and the annual growth, and to determine the functional outcomes of the neoglenofibular joint. Patients and Methods. We retrospectively analyzed 11 patients who underwent this procedure for a primary bone tumour of the proximal humerus between 2004 and 2015. Six had Ewing’s sarcoma and five had osteosarcoma. Their mean age at the time of surgery was five years (two to eight). The mean follow-up was 5.2 years (1 to 12.2). Results. The overall survival at five and ten years was 91% (confidence interval (CI) 95% 75% to 100%). At the time of the final review, ten patients were alive. One with local recurrence and metastasis died one-year post-operatively. Complications included seven fractures, four transient nerve palsies, and two patients developed avascular necrosis of the graft. All the fractures presented within the first postoperative year and united with conservative management. One patient had two further operations for a slipped fibular epiphysis of the autograft, and a hemi-epiphysiodesis for lateral tibial physeal arrest. Hypertrophy and axial growth were evident in nine patients who did not have avascular necrosis of the graft. The mean hypertrophy index was 65% (55% to 82%), and the mean growth was 4.6 mm per annum (2.4 to 7.6) in these nine grafts. At final follow-up, the mean modified functional Musculoskeletal Tumour Society score was 77% (63% to 83%) and the mean Toronto Extremity Salvage Score (TESS) was 84% (65% to 94%). Conclusion. Vascularized fibular epiphyseal transfer preserves function and growth in young children following excision of the proximal humerus for a malignant bone tumour. Function compares favourably to other limb-salvage procedures in children. Longer term analysis is required to determine if this technique proves to be durable into adulthood. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:535–41

The medial approach for the treatment of children with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in whom closed reduction has failed requires minimal access with negligible blood loss. In the United Kingdom, there is a preference for these children to be treated using an anterolateral approach after the appearance of the ossific nucleus. In this study we compared these two protocols, primarily for the risk of osteonecrosis. Data were gathered prospectively for protocols involving the medial approach (26 hips in 22 children) and the anterolateral approach (22 hips in 21 children) in children aged <  24 months at the time of surgery. Osteonecrosis of the femoral head was assessed with validated scores. The acetabular index (AI) and centre–edge angle (CEA) were also measured. . The mean age of the children at the time of surgery was 11 months (3 to 24) for the medial approach group and 18 months (12 to 24) for the anterolateral group, and the combined mean follow-up was 70 months (26 to 228). Osteonecrosis of the femoral head was evident or asphericity predicted in three of 26 hips (12%) in the medial approach group and four of 22 (18%) in the anterolateral group (p = 0.52). The mean improvement in AI was 8.8° (4° to 12°) and 7.9° (6° to 10°), respectively, at two years post-operatively (p = 0.18). There was no significant difference in CEA values of affected hips between the two groups. Children treated using an early medial approach did not have a higher risk of developing osteonecrosis at early to mid-term follow-up than those treated using a delayed anterolateral approach. The rates of acetabular remodelling were similar for both protocols. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:406–13

This retrospective study was designed to evaluate the outcomes of re-dislocation of the radial head after corrective osteotomy for chronic dislocation. A total of 12 children with a mean age of 11 years (5 to 16), with further dislocation of the radial head after corrective osteotomy of the forearm, were followed for a mean of five years (2 to 10). Re-operations were performed for radial head re-dislocation in six children, while the other six did not undergo re-operation (‘non-re-operation group’). The active range of movement (ROM) of their elbows was evaluated before and after the first operation, and at the most recent follow-up. . In the re-operation group, there were significant decreases in extension, pronation, and supination when comparing the ROM following the corrective osteotomy and following re-operation (p < 0.05). . The children who had not undergone re-operation achieved a better ROM than those who had undergone re-operation. . There was a significant difference in mean pronation (76° vs 0°) between the non- re-operation and the re-operation group (p = 0.002), and a trend towards increases in mean flexion (133° vs 111°), extension (0° vs 23°), and supination (62° vs 29°). We did not find a clear benefit for re-operation in children with a re-dislocation following corrective osteotomy for chronic dislocation of the radial head. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:1582–7

We investigated the incidence and risk factors for the development of avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head in the course of treatment of children with cerebral palsy (CP) and dislocation of the hip. All underwent open reduction, proximal femoral and Dega pelvic osteotomy. The inclusion criteria were: a predominantly spastic form of CP, dislocation of the hip (migration percentage, MP > 80%), Gross Motor Function Classification System, (GMFCS) grade IV to V, a primary surgical procedure and follow-up of > one year. There were 81 consecutive children (40 girls and 41 boys) in the study. Their mean age was nine years (3.5 to 13.8) and mean follow-up was 5.5 years (1.6 to 15.1). Radiological evaluation included measurement of the MP, the acetabular index (AI), the epiphyseal shaft angle (ESA) and the pelvic femoral angle (PFA). The presence and grade of AVN were assessed radiologically according to the Kruczynski classification. Signs of AVN (grades I to V) were seen in 79 hips (68.7%). A total of 23 hips (18%) were classified between grades III and V. Although open reduction of the hip combined with femoral and Dega osteotomy is an effective form of treatment for children with CP and dislocation of the hip, there were signs of avascular necrosis in about two-thirds of the children. There was a strong correlation between post-operative pain and the severity of the grade of AVN. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:270–6

Compartment pressures have not previously been studied in healthy children. We compared the pressures in the four lower leg compartments of healthy children with those of healthy adults. We included patients aged between two months and six years, and measured the pressures in 80 compartments of 20 healthy children using simple needle manometry. Measurements were repeated in a control group of 20 healthy adults. The mean compartment pressure in the lower leg in children was significantly higher than in adults (p < 0.001). On average, pressures in the four compartments varied between 13.3 mmHg and 16.6 mmHg in the children and between 5.2 mmHg and 9.7 mmHg in the adults. The latter is in accordance with those recorded in the literature. The mean arterial pressure did not relate to age or to pressure in the compartment. The findings of this study that the normal compartment pressure of the lower leg in healthy children is significantly higher than that in adults may be of considerable significance in clinical decision-making in children of this age

We report the results of Vulpius transverse gastrocsoleus recession for equinus gait in 26 children with cerebral palsy (CP), using the Gait Profile Score (GPS), Gait Variable Scores (GVS) and movement analysis profile. All children had an equinus deformity on physical examination and equinus gait on three-dimensional gait analysis prior to surgery. The pre-operative and post-operative GPS and GVS were statistically analysed. There were 20 boys and 6 girls in the study cohort with a mean age at surgery of 9.2 years (5.1 to 17.7) and 11.5 years (7.3 to 20.8) at follow-up. Of the 26 children, 14 had spastic diplegia and 12 spastic hemiplegia. Gait function improved for the cohort, confirmed by a decrease in mean GPS from 13.4° pre-operatively to 9.0° final review (p < 0.001). The change was 2.8 times the minimal clinically important difference (MCID). Thus the improvements in gait were both clinically and statistically significant. The transverse gastrocsoleus recession described by Vulpius is an effective procedure for equinus gait in selected children with CP, when there is a fixed contracture of the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:564–71

Aims. Single event multilevel surgery (SEMLS) has been shown to improve gait in children with cerebral palsy (CP). However, there is limited evidence regarding long-term outcomes and factors influencing them. . Methods. In total 39 children (17 females and 22 males; mean age at SEMLS ten years four months, standard deviation 37 months) with bilateral CP (20 Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS) level II and 19 GMFCS level III) treated with SEMLS were included. Children were evaluated using gait analysis and the Gait Deviation Index (GDI) before SEMLS and one, two to three, five and at least ten years after SEMLS. A linear mixed model was used to estimate the effect of age at the surgery, GMFCS and follow-up period on GDI. . Results. There was a mean improvement of 12.1 (-15.3 to 45.1) GDI points one year after SEMLS (p <  0.001) and 10.3 (-23.1 to 44.2) GDI points ten years after SEMLS compared with before SEMLS (p < 0.001). GMFCS level III children aged ten to 12 years had the most improvement. The GMFCS III group had more surgical procedures at the index SEMLS (p < 0.001) and during the follow-up period (p = 0.039). After correcting for other factors, age at surgery was the only factor predictive of long-term results. Our model was able to explain 45% of the variance of the change in GDI at the different time points. Take home message: Children with GMFCS III level aged ten to 12 are the benchmark responders to SEMLS in the long-term. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:278–81

Elastic stable intramedullary nailing (ESIN) is generally acknowledged to be the treatment of choice for displaced diaphyseal femoral fractures in children over the age of three years, although complication rates of up to 50% are described. Pre-bending the nails is recommended, but there are no published data to support this. Using synthetic bones and a standardised simulated fracture, we performed biomechanical testing to determine the influence on the stability of the fracture of pre-bending the nails before implantation. Standard ESIN was performed on 24 synthetic femoral models with a spiral fracture. In eight cases the nails were inserted without any pre-bending, in a further eight cases they were pre-bent to 30° and in the last group of eight cases they were pre-bent to 60°. Mechanical testing revealed that pre-bending to 60° produced a significant increase in the stiffness or stability of the fracture. Pre-bending to 60° showed a significant positive influence on the stiffness compared with unbent nails. Pre-bending to 30° improved stiffness only slightly. These findings validate the recommendations for pre-bending, but the degree of pre-bend should exceed 30°. Adopting higher degrees of pre-bending should improve stability in spiral fractures and reduce the complications of varus deformity and shortening

In 1994, a register for cerebral palsy and a health-care programme were started in southern Sweden with the aim of preventing dislocation of the hip in children with cerebral palsy. It involved all children with cerebral palsy born in 1992 or later. None of the 206 affected children born between 1992 and 1997 has developed a dislocation following the introduction of the prevention programme. Another 48 children moved into the area and none developed any further dislocation. Of the 251 children with cerebral palsy, aged between five and 11 years, living in the area on January 1, 2003, only two had a dislocated hip. One boy had moved into the area at age of nine with a dislocation and a girl whose parents chose not to participate in the programme developed bilateral dislocation. One boy, whose condition was considered to be too poor for preventative surgery, developed a painful dislocation of the hip at the age of five years and died three years later. Eight of 103 children in a control group, consisting of all children with cerebral palsy living in the area between 1994 and 2002, and born between 1990 and 1991, developed a dislocation of the hip before the age of six years. The decreased incidence of dislocation after the introduction of the prevention programme was significant (p < 0.001). Dislocation of the hip in cerebral palsy remains a serious problem, and prevention is important. Our screening programme and early intervention when lateral displacement of the femoral head was detected appear to be successful

We have reviewed our experience of the removal of deep extremity orthopaedic implants in children to establish the nature, rate and risk of complications associated with this procedure. A retrospective review was performed of 801 children who had 1223 implants inserted and subsequently removed over a period of 17 years. Bivariate analysis of possible predictors including clinical factors, complications associated with implant insertion and indications for removal and the complications encountered at removal was performed. A logistical regression model was then constructed using those predictors which were significantly associated with surgical complications from the bivariate analyses. Odds ratios estimated in the logistical regression models were converted to risk ratios. The overall rate of complications after removal of the implant was 12.5% (100 complications in 801 patients), with 48 (6.0%) major and 52 (6.5%) minor. Children with a complication after insertion of the initial implant or with a non-elective indication for removal, a neuromuscular disease associated with a seizure disorder or a neuromuscular disease in those unable to walk, had a significantly greater chance of having a major complication after removal of the implant. Children with all four of these predictors were 14.6 times more likely to have a major complication

Aims. High-quality clinical research in children’s orthopaedic surgery has lagged behind other surgical subspecialties. This study used a consensus-based approach to identify research priorities for clinical trials in children’s orthopaedics. Methods. A modified Delphi technique was used, which involved an initial scoping survey, a two-round Delphi process and an expert panel formed of members of the British Society of Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery. The survey was conducted amongst orthopaedic surgeons treating children in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Results. A total of 86 clinicians contributed to both rounds of the Delphi process, scoring priorities from one (low priority) to five (high priority). Elective topics were ranked higher than those relating to trauma, with the top ten elective research questions scoring higher than the top question for trauma. Ten elective, and five trauma research priorities were identified, with the three highest ranked questions relating to the treatment of slipped capital femoral epiphysis (mean score 4.6/ 5), Perthes’ disease (4.5) and bone infection (4.5). Conclusion. This consensus-based research agenda will guide surgeons, academics and funders to improve the evidence in children’s orthopaedic surgery and encourage the development of multicentre clinical trials. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:680–4

We reviewed the records of children referred to our hospital between April and September 2005 who had been injured whilst trampolining. Of 88 such children there were 33 boys and 55 girls with a mean age of 8 years 6 months (2 years 4 months to 15 years 9 months). Most of the injuries (53; 60%) occurred when bouncing and 34 (39%) were secondary to falls from the trampoline. The cause of injury was unknown in one child. The injured child was supervised in only 35 cases (40%). In 31 (35%) cases, the injury was related to the presence of others on the trampoline. A total of 36 (40%) children required surgery. Fractures of the upper limbs occurred in 62 cases (70%). Injuries related to the recreational use of trampolines are a significant cause of childhood injury. Our results suggest strongly that there is a need for clear guidelines on safe and responsible use of domestic trampolines

Aims. Our aim was to assess the effectiveness of a protocol involving a standardised closed reduction for the treatment of children with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) in maintaining reduction and to report the mid-term results. Methods. A total of 133 hips in 120 children aged less than two years who underwent closed reduction, with a minimum follow-up of five years or until subsequent surgery, were included in the study. The protocol defines the criteria for an acceptable reduction and the indications for a concomitant soft-tissue release. All children were immobilised in a short- leg cast for three months. Arthrograms were undertaken at the time of closed reduction and six weeks later. Follow-up radiographs were taken at six months and one, two and five years later and at the latest follow-up. The Tönnis grade, acetabular index, Severin grade and signs of osteonecrosis were recorded. Results. A total of 67 hips (51%) were Tönnis grade 3/4 hips. By 12 months, 20 reductions (15%) had not been maintained, and these required open reduction. In all, 55% of these were Severin 1; the others were Severin 2, due to minor acetabular dysplasia. Of the 113 successful closed reductions, 98 hips (87%) were Severin 1. Surgery for residual DDH was offered for ten hips. Osteonecrosis was seen in 32 hips (29%) but was transient in 28. In total, two children (1.5%) had severe osteonecrosis. Bilateral dislocations were significantly more likely to fail and most Tönnis 4 hips failed. Conclusion. Closed reduction, with concomitant adductor and psoas release when required and the use of a short leg plaster of Paris cast for three months, can produce good mid-term results in children with DDH aged less than two years. This protocol is not recommended for Tönnis 4 hips. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1548–53

Aims

The aim of this study is to evaluate the surgical treatment with the best healing rate for patients with proximal femoral unicameral bone cysts (UBCs) after initial surgery, and to determine which procedure has the lowest adverse event burden during follow-up.

We have investigated whether early anatomical open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) reduces the incidence of complications of fracture of the femoral neck in children, including avascular necrosis, compared with closed reduction and internal fixation (CRIF). We retrospectively reviewed 27 such fractures (15 type-II and 12 type-III displaced fractures) in children younger than 16 years of age seen in our hospital between February 1989 and March 2007. We divided the patients into three groups according to the quality of the reduction (anatomical, acceptable, and unacceptable) and the clinical results into two groups (satisfactory and unsatisfactory). Of the 15 fractures treated by ORIF, 14 (93.3%) had anatomical reduction and reduction was acceptable in one. Of the 12 treated by CRIF, three (25.0%) had anatomical reduction, eight had acceptable reduction (66.7%), and one (8.3%) unacceptable reduction. Of the 15 fractures treated by ORIF, 14 (93.3%) had a good result and one a fair result. Of the 12 treated by CRIF, seven (58.3%) had a good result, two (16.7%) a fair result and three (25.0%) a poor result. There were seven complications in five patients. ORIF gives better reduction with fewer complications, including avascular necrosis, than does CRIF in fractures of the femoral neck in children

In this study we evaluated the results of midtarsal release and open reduction for the treatment of children with convex congenital foot (CCF) (vertical talus) and compared them with the published results of peritalar release. Between 1977 and 2009, a total of 22 children (31 feet) underwent this procedure. In 15 children (48%) the CCF was isolated and in the remainder it was not (seven with arthrogryposis, two with spinal dysraphism, one with a polymalformative syndrome and six with an undefined neurological disorder). Pre-operatively, the mean tibiotalar angle was 150.2° (106° to 175°) and the mean calcaneal pitch angle was -19.3° (-72° to 4°). The procedure included talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joint capsulotomies, lengthening of tendons of tibialis anterior and the extensors of the toes, allowing reduction of the midtarsal joints. Lengthening of the Achilles tendon was necessary in 23 feet (74%). The mean follow-up was 11 years (2 to 21). The results, as assessed by the Adelaar score, were good in 24 feet (77.4%), fair in six (19.3%) and poor in one foot (3.3%), with no difference between those with isolated CCF and those without. The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society midfoot score was 89.9 (54 to 100) and 77.8 (36 to 93) for those with isolated CCF and those without, respectively. At the final follow-up, the mean tibiotalar (120°; 90 to 152) and calcaneal pitch angles (4°; -13 to 22) had improved significantly (p < 0.0001). Dislocation of the talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joints was completely reduced in 22 (70.9%) and 29 (93.6%) of feet, respectively. Three children (five feet) underwent further surgery at a mean of 8.5 years post-operatively, three with pes planovalgus and two in whom the deformity had been undercorrected. No child developed avascular necrosis of the talus. Midtarsal joint release and open reduction is a satisfactory procedure, which may provide better results than peritalar release. Complications include the development of pes planovalgus and persistent dorsal subluxation of the talonavicular joint. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:837–44

We present the validation of a translation into Danish of the Oxford ankle foot questionnaire (OxAFQ). We followed the Isis Pros guidelines for translation and pilot-tested the questionnaire on ten children and their parents. Following modifications we tested the validity of the final questionnaire on 82 children (36 boys and 45 girls) with a mean age of 11.7 years (5.5 to 16.0) and their parents. We tested the reliability (repeatability (test–retest), child–parent agreement, internal consistency), feasibility (response rate, time to completion, floor and ceiling effects) and construct validity. The generic child health questionnaire was used for comparison. We found good internal consistency for the physical and the school and play domains, but lower internal consistency for the emotional domain. Overall, good repeatability was found within children and parents as well as agreement between children and parents. The OxAFQ was fast and easy to complete, but we observed a tendency towards ceiling effects in the school and play and emotional domains. To our knowledge this is the first independent validation of the OxAFQ in any language. We found it valid and feasible for use in the clinic to assess the impact on children’s lives of foot and/or ankle disorders. It is a valuable research tool. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:420–6

Fractures of the odontoid in children with an open basilar synchondrosis differ from those which occur in older children and adults. We have reviewed the morphology of these fractures and present a classification system for them. There were four distinct patterns of fracture (types IA to IC and type II) which were distinguished by the site of the fracture, the degree of displacement and the presence or absence of atlantoaxial dislocation. Children with a closed synchondrosis were classified using the system devised by Anderson and D’Alonzo. Those with an open synchondrosis had a comparatively lower incidence of traumatic brain injury, a higher rate of missed diagnosis and a shorter mean stay in hospital. Certain subtypes (type IA and type II) are likely to be missed on plain radiographs and therefore more advanced imaging is recommended. We suggest staged treatment with initial stabilisation in a Halo body jacket and early fusion for those with unstable injuries, severe displacement or neurological involvement

Morbid obesity and its association with obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome have been increasingly recognised in children. Orthopaedic surgeons are often the primary medical contact for older children with tibia vara, which has long been associated with obesity, but are unfamiliar with the evaluation and treatment of sleep apnoea in children. We reviewed all children with tibia vara treated surgically at one of our institutions over a period of five years. Thirty-seven patients were identified; 18 were nine years of age or older and 13 of these (72%) had morbid obesity and a history of snoring. Eleven children were diagnosed as having sleep apnoea on polysomnography. The incidence of this syndrome in the 18 children aged nine years or older with tibia vara, was 61%. All these patients required pre-operative non-invasive positive-pressure ventilation; tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy were necessary in five (45%). No peri-operative complications related to the airway occurred. There is a high incidence of sleep apnoea in morbidly obese patients with tibia vara. These patients should be screened for snoring and, if present, should be further evaluated for sleep apnoea before corrective surgery is undertaken

Flexible intramedullary nailing is gaining popularity as an effective method of treating long-bone fractures in children. We retrospectively reviewed the records and radiographs of 56 unstable fractures of the tibia in 54 children treated between March 1997 and May 2005. All were followed up for at least two months after the removal of the nails. Of the 56 tibial fractures, 13 were open. There were no nonunions. The mean time to clinical and radiological union was ten weeks. Complications included residual angulation of the tibia, leg-length discrepancy, deep infection and failures of fixation. All achieved an excellent functional outcome. We conclude that flexible intramedullary fixation is an easy and effective method of management of both open and closed unstable fractures of the tibia in children

Aims

The aim of this study was to report a complete overview of both incidence, fracture distribution, mode of injury, and patient baseline demographics of paediatric distal forearm fractures to identify age of risk and types of activities leading to injury.

We reviewed the evidence for hip surveillance in children with cerebral palsy from the published literature. Publications were identified using the Cochrane controlled trials register, the MEDLINE, EMBASE and CINAHL databases and by hand searching key journals and their references. Studies were included if they reported the frequency, associated risk factors or surveillance measures undertaken to identify subluxation or dislocation of the hip in children with cerebral palsy. Assessment of the quality of the methodology was undertaken independently by two researchers. Four studies described the natural history, incidence and risk factors for dislocation of the hip. Two reported their surveillance results. Approximately 60% of children who were not walking by five years of age were likely to develop subluxation of the hip, with the greatest risk in those with severe neurological involvement. The introduction of surveillance programmes allowed earlier identification of subluxation and reduced the need for surgery on dislocated hips. Surveillance can identify children most at risk of subluxation using radiological methods which are widely available

We describe our experience with the ‘four-in-one’ procedure for habitual dislocation of the patella in five children (six knees). All the patients presented with severe generalised ligamentous laxity and aplasia of the trochlear groove. All had a lateral release, proximal ‘tube’ realignment of the patella, semitendinosus tenodesis and transfer of the patellar tendon. The mean age at the time of the operation was 6.1 years (4.9 to 6.9), and the patients were followed up for a mean of 54.5 months (31 to 66). The clinical results were evaluated using the Kujala score. There has been no recurrence of dislocation. All the patients have returned to full activities and the parents and children were satisfied with the clinical results. The mean Kujala score was 95.3 (88 to 98). Two patients had marginal skin necrosis which healed after debridement and secondary closure. These early results in this small group have shown that the ‘four-in-one’ procedure is effective in the treatment of obligatory dislocation of the patella in children with severe ligamentous laxity and trochlear aplasia

At our institution surgical correction of symptomatic flat foot deformities in children has been guided by a paradigm in which radiographs and pedobarography are used in the assessment of outcome following treatment. Retrospective review of children with symptomatic flat feet who had undergone surgical correction was performed to assess the outcome and establish the relationship between the static alignment and the dynamic loading of the foot. A total of 17 children (21 feet) were assessed before and after correction of soft-tissue contractures and lateral column lengthening, using standardised radiological and pedobarographic techniques for which normative data were available. We found significantly improved static segmental alignment of the foot, significantly improved mediolateral dimension foot loading, and worsened fore-aft foot loading, following surgical treatment. Only four significant associations were found between radiological measures of static segmental alignment and dynamic loading of the foot. Weakness of the plantar flexors of the ankle was a common post-operative finding. Surgeons should be judicious in the magnitude of lengthening of the plantar flexors that is undertaken and use techniques that minimise subsequent weakening of this muscle group. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:706–13

Redisplacement is the most common complication of immobilisation in a cast for the treatment of diaphyseal fractures of the forearm in children. We have previously shown that the three-point index (TPI) can accurately predict redisplacement of fractures of the distal radius. In this prospective study we applied this index to assessment of diaphyseal fractures of the forearm in children and compared it with other cast-related indices that might predict redisplacement. A total of 76 children were included. Their ages, initial displacement, quality of reduction, site and level of the fractures and quality of the casting according to the TPI, Canterbury index and padding index were analysed. Logistic regression analysis was used to investigate risk factors for redisplacement. A total of 18 fractures (24%) redisplaced in the cast. A TPI value of > 0.8 was the only significant risk factor for redisplacement (odds ratio 238.5 (95% confidence interval 7.063 to 8054.86); p < 0.001). The TPI was far superior to other radiological indices, with a sensitivity of 84% and a specificity of 97% in successfully predicting redisplacement. We recommend it for routine use in the management of these fractures in children. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:563–7

Redisplacement of unstable forearm fractures in plaster is common and may be the result of a number of factors. Little attention has been paid to the influence of immobilisation with the elbow extended versus flexed. We prospectively treated 111 consecutive children from two centres with closed forearm fractures by closed reduction and casting with the elbow either extended (60) in China or flexed (51) in Israel. We compared the outcome of the two groups. There was no statistically significant difference in the distribution of the age of the patients, the site of fracture or the amount of angulation and displacement between the groups. During the first two weeks after reduction, redisplacement occurred in no child immobilised with the elbow extended and nine of 51 children (17.6%) immobilised with the elbow flexed. Immobilisation of unstable forearm fractures with the elbow extended appears to be a safe and effective method of maintaining reduction

This study evaluated the results of a physeal-sparing technique of intra-articular anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction in skeletally immature patients, with particular reference to growth disturbance. Between 1992 and 2007, 57 children with a mean age of 12.2 years (6.8 to 14.5) underwent ACL reconstruction using the same technique. At a mean of 5.5 years (2 to 14) after surgery, 56 patients underwent clinical and radiological evaluation. At that time, 49 patients (87.5%) had reached bony maturity and 53 (95%) achieved A or B according to the IKDC 2000 classification. Four patients had stopped participation in sports because of knee symptoms, and three patients (5.4%) had a subsequent recurrent ACL injury. There was no clinical or radiological evidence of growth disturbance after a mean growth in stature of 20.0 cm (3 to 38). This study demonstrates that ACL reconstruction sparing the physes in children is a safe technique protecting against meniscal tears and giving better results than reconstruction in adults, without causing significant growth disturbance

Cubitus varus is the most frequent complication following the treatment of supracondylar humeral fractures in children. We investigated data from publications reporting on the surgical management of cubitus varus found in electronic searches of Ovid/MEDLINE and Cochrane Library databases. In 894 children from 40 included studies, the mean age at initial injury was 5.7 years (3 to 8.6) and 9.8 years (4 to 15.7) at the time of secondary correction. The four osteotomy techniques were classified as lateral closing wedge, dome, complex (multiplanar) and distraction osteogenesis. A mean angular correction of 27.6º (18.5° to 37.0°) was achieved across all classes of osteotomy. The meta-analytical summary estimate for overall rate of good to excellent results was 87.8% (95% CI 84.4 to 91.2). No technique was shown to significantly affect the surgical outcome, and the risk of complications across all osteotomy classes was 14.5% (95% CI 10.6 to 18.5). Nerve palsies occurred in 2.53% of cases (95% CI 1.4 to 3.6), although 78.4% were transient. No one technique was found to be statistically safer or more effective than any other. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:691–700

There are few reports describing dislocation of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb in children. This study describes the clinical features and outcome of 37 such dislocations and correlates the radiological pattern with the type of dislocation. The mean age at injury was 7.3 years (3 to 13). A total of 33 children underwent closed reduction (11 under general anaesthesia). Four needed open reduction in two of which there was soft-tissue interposition. All cases obtained a good result. There was no infection, recurrent dislocation or significant stiffness. So-called ‘simple complete’ dislocations that present with the classic radiological finding of the joint at 90° dorsal angulation may be ‘complex complete’ injuries and require open reduction

The crucial differentiation between septic arthritis and transient synovitis of the hip in children can be difficult. In 1999, Kocher et al introduced four clinical predictors which were highly predictive (99.6%) of septic arthritis. These included fever (temperature ≥ 38.5°C), inability to bear weight, white blood-cell count > 12.0 × 10. 9. cells/L and ESR ≥ 40 mm/hr; CRP ≥ 20 mg/L was later added as a fifth predictor. We retrospectively evaluated these predictors to differentiate septic arthritis from transient synovitis of the hip in children over a four-year period in a primary referral general hospital. When all five were positive, the predicted probability of septic arthritis in this study was only 59.9%, with fever being the best predictor. When applied to low-prevalence diseases, even highly specific tests yield a high number of false positives and the predictive value is thereby diminished. Clinical predictors should be applied with caution when assessing a child with an irritable hip, and a high index of suspicion, and close observation of patients at risk should be maintained

Our goal was to evaluate the use of Ponseti’s method, with minor adaptations, in the treatment of idiopathic clubfeet presenting in children between five and ten years of age. A retrospective review was performed in 36 children (55 feet) with a mean age of 7.4 years (5 to 10), supplemented by digital images and video recordings of gait. There were 19 males and 17 females. The mean follow-up was 31.5 months (24 to 40). The mean number of casts was 9.5 (6 to 11), and all children required surgery, including a percutaneous tenotomy or open tendo Achillis lengthening (49%), posterior release (34.5%), posterior medial soft-tissue release (14.5%), or soft-tissue release combined with an osteotomy (2%). The mean dorsiflexion of the ankle was 9° (0° to 15°). Forefoot alignment was neutral in 28 feet (51%) or adducted (< 10°) in 20 feet (36%), > 10° in seven feet (13%). Hindfoot alignment was neutral or mild valgus in 26 feet (47%), mild varus (< 10°) in 19 feet (35%), and varus (> 10°) in ten feet (18%). Heel–toe gait was present in 38 feet (86%), and 12 (28%) exhibited weight-bearing on the lateral border (out of a total of 44 feet with gait videos available for analysis). Overt relapse was identified in nine feet (16%, six children). The parents of 27 children (75%) were completely satisfied. A plantigrade foot was achieved in 46 feet (84%) without an extensive soft-tissue release or bony procedure, although under-correction was common, and longer-term follow-up will be required to assess the outcome. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1721–5

The management of children’s fractures has evolved as a result of better health education, changes in lifestyle, improved implant technology and the changing expectations of society. This review focuses on the changes seen in paediatric fractures, including epidemiology, the increasing problems of obesity, the mechanisms of injury, non-accidental injuries and litigation. We also examine the changes in the management of fractures at three specific sites: the supracondylar humerus, femoral shaft and forearm. There has been an increasing trend towards surgical stabilisation of these fractures. The reasons for this are multifactorial, including societal expectations of a perfect result and reduced hospital stay. Reduced hospital stay is beneficial to the social, educational and psychological needs of the child and beneficial to society as a whole, due to reduced costs. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:442–8

We reviewed the outcome in 24 children with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy aged seven years or younger for whom surgery was recommended between 1999 and 2005 following gait analysis. A total of 13 children (operative group) had surgery and the remaining 11 (control group) did not, for family or administrative reasons. The operative group had at least two post-operative gait analyses at yearly intervals, with eight children having a third and six children a fourth. The control group had a second analysis after a mean interval of 1.5 years (95% confidence interval 1.1 to 1.9). In the operative group, the Gillette gait index, the ranges of movement in the lower limb joint and knee extension in stance improved following surgery, and this was maintained overall at the second post-operative analysis. The minimum knee flexion in stance in the control group increased between analyses. These results suggest that surgical intervention in selected children can result in improvements in gait and function in the short to medium term compared with non-operative management

This study compares the initial outcomes of minimally invasive techniques for single-event multi-level surgery with conventional single-event multi-level surgery. The minimally invasive techniques included derotation osteotomies using closed corticotomy and fixation with titanium elastic nails and percutaneous lengthening of muscles where possible. A prospective cohort study of two matched groups was undertaken. Ten children with diplegic cerebral palsy with a mean age of ten years six months (7.11 to 13.9) had multi-level minimally invasive surgery and were matched for ambulatory level and compared with ten children with a mean age of 11 years four months (7.9 to 14.4) who had conventional single-event multi-level surgery. Gait kinematics, the Gillette Gait Index, isometric muscle strength and gross motor function were assessed before and 12 months after operation. The minimally invasive group had significantly reduced operation time and blood loss with a significantly improved time to mobilisation. There were no complications intra-operatively or during hospitalisation in either group. There was significant improvement in gait kinematics and the Gillette Gait Index in both groups with no difference between them. There was a trend to improved muscle strength in the multi-level group. There was no significant difference in gross motor function between the groups. We consider that minimally invasive single-event multi-level surgery can be achieved safely and effectively with significant advantages over conventional techniques in children with diplegic cerebral palsy

The aim of this retrospective multicentre study was to report the continued occurrence of compartment syndrome secondary to paediatric supracondylar humeral fractures in the period 1995 to 2005. The inclusion criteria were children with a closed, low-energy supracondylar fracture with no associated fractures or vascular compromise, who subsequently developed compartment syndrome. There were 11 patients (seven girls and four boys) identified from eight hospitals in three countries. Ten patients with severe elbow swelling documented at presentation had a mean delay before surgery of 22 hours (6 to 64). One patient without severe swelling documented at presentation suffered arterial entrapment following reduction, with a subsequent compartment syndrome requiring fasciotomy 25 hours after the index procedure. This series is noteworthy, as all patients had low-energy injuries and presented with an intact radial pulse. Significant swelling at presentation and delay in fracture reduction may be important warning signs for the development of a compartment syndrome in children with supracondylar fractures of the humerus

A total of 33 children were treated for acute traumatic dislocation of the elbow between 1994 and 2002; 30 dislocations were posterior and three anterior. Eight children had a pure dislocation and 25 had an associated fracture of the elbow. Two had compound injuries. Two children had injury to the ulnar nerve, one to the radial nerve and one to the median nerve together with injury to the brachial artery. Twenty required open reduction. Complications included pseudarthrosis of the medial epicondyle in one child and loss of flexion and rotation of between 10° and 30° in ten others. Meticulous clinical and radiological assessment is mandatory in children with dislocation of the elbow to exclude associated injuries. The results were excellent to good in 22 patients, fair in ten and poor in one

The databases of the Picture Archiving and Communication Systems of two hospitals were searched and all children who had a lateral radiograph of the ankle during their attendance at the emergency department were identified. In 227 radiographs, Bohler’s and Gissane’s angles were measured on two separate occasions and by two separate authors to allow calculation of inter- and intra-observer variation. Intraclass correlation coefficients were used to assess the reliability of the measurements. For Bohler’s angle the overall inter-observer reliability, the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.90 and the intra-observer reliability 0.95, giving excellent agreement. This reliability was maintained across the age groups. For Gissane’s angle, inter- and intra-observer reliability was only fair or poor across most age groups. Further analysis of the Bohler’s angle showed a significant variation in the mean angle with age. Contrary to published opinion, the angle is not uniformly lower than that of adults but varies with age, peaking towards the end of the first decade before attaining adult values. The age-related radiologic changes presented here may help in the interpretation of injuries to the hindfoot in children

We reviewed the long-term radiological outcome, complications and revision operations in 19 children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy and hip dysplasia who underwent combined peri-iliac osteotomy and femoral varus derotation osteotomy. They had a mean age of 7.5 years (1.6 to 10.9) and comprised 22 hip dislocations and subluxations. We also studied the outcome for the contralateral hip. At a mean follow-up of 11.7 years (10 to 15.1) the Melbourne cerebral palsy (CP) hip classification was grade 2 in 16 hips, grade 3 in five, and grade 5 in one. There were five complications seen in four hips (21%, four patients), including one dislocation, one subluxation, one coxa vara with adduction deformity, one subtrochanteric fracture and one infection. A recurrent soft-tissue contracture occurred in five hips and ten required revision surgery. In pre-adolescent children with quadriplegic cerebral palsy good long-term outcomes can be achieved after reconstruction of the hip; regular follow-up is required. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:259–65

Type BI rotationplasty is currently indicated for children with tumours of the proximal femur whereas type BIIIa rotationplasty is reserved for those in which the entire femur has to be removed. Our aim was to compare these two types of rotationplasty and determine whether the knee should be preserved in children with tumours of the proximal femur. We compared the post-operative complications, oncological outcome, range of movement, Enneking score and radiographs of six children, who had undergone type BI rotationplasty with those of 12 who had undergone type BIIIa rotationplasty. Patients with type BI rotationplasty had a mean Enneking score of 21.6 compared with 24.4 in those with type BIIIa rotationplasty, and worse mean results in all of the parameters investigated. We conclude that type BI rotationplasty has a worse functional outcome and more complications than type BIIIa rotationplasty in children under the age of ten years

We present a method of manipulative reduction, immobilisation and fixation using a U-shaped plaster with the elbow in extension for extension-type supracondylar fractures of the humerus in children. When the elbow is in full extension, both the extensor and the flexor muscles are neutralised during manipulative reduction and the carrying angle can be easily assessed thus preventing cubitus varus, the most common complication. In order to evaluate the efficiency of this method, we compared the clinical results of the new method with those of conventional treatment. In a group of 95 children who sustained an extension-type supracondylar fracture of the humerus, 49 were treated by the new method and 46 by the conventional method, reduction and immobilisation in a plaster slab with the elbow in flexion. Reduction and immobilisation were easily achieved and reliably maintained by one manipulation for all the children treated by the new method. In 12 children treated by the conventional method, the initial reduction failed and in seven secondary displacement of the distal fragment occurred during the period of immobilisation in plaster. All required a second or third manipulation. Of the 46 children, 28 (60.9%) had developed cubitus varus at a mean follow-up of 4.6 years when treated by the conventional method. None of the children treated by the new method developed cubitus varus. The mean score, according to the Hospital for Special Surgery (HSS) elbow scoring system, was 91 points using the new method and 78 with the conventional method. The results were statistically significant with regard to the incidence of cubitus varus and the elbow score (p < 0.01) suggesting that the new method is reliable and gives a satisfactory outcome

Although equinus gait is the most common abnormality in children with spastic cerebral palsy (CP) there is no consistency in recommendations for treatment, and evidence for best practice is lacking. The Baumann procedure allows selective fractional lengthening of the gastrocnemii and soleus muscles but the long-term outcome is not known. We followed a group of 18 children (21 limbs) with diplegic CP for ten years using three-dimensional instrumented gait analysis. The kinematic parameters of the ankle joint improved significantly following this procedure and were maintained until the end of follow-up. We observed a normalisation of the timing of the key kinematic and kinetic parameters, and an increase in the maximum generation of power of the ankle. There was a low rate of overcorrection (9.5%, n = 2), and a rate of recurrent equinus similar to that found with other techniques (23.8%, n = 5). As the procedure does not impair the muscle architecture, and allows for selective correction of the contracted gastrocnemii and soleus, it may be recommended as the preferred method for correction of a mild fixed equinus deformity

We studied prospectively the impact of a hip surveillance clinic on the management of spastic hip disease in children with cerebral palsy in a tertiary referral centre. Using a combination of primary clinical and secondary radiological screening we were able to detect spastic hip disease at an early stage in most children and to offer early surgical intervention. The principal effect on surgical practice was that more preventive surgery was carried out at a younger age and at a more appropriate stage of the disease. The need for reconstructive surgery has decreased and that for salvage surgery has been eliminated. Displacement of the hip in children with cerebral palsy meets specific criteria for a screening programme. We recommend that hip surveillance should become part of the routine management of children with cerebral palsy. The hips should be examined radiologically at 18 months of age in all children with bilateral cerebral palsy and at six- to 12-monthly intervals thereafter. A co-ordinated approach by orthopaedic surgeons and physiotherapists may be the key to successful implementation of this screening programme

Between January 1995 and December 2000, 112 children with a closed displaced supracondylar fracture of the humerus without vascular deficit, were managed by elevated, straight-arm traction for a mean of 22 days. The final outcome was assessed using clinical (flexion-extension arc, carrying angle and residual rotational deformity) and radiographic (metaphyseal-diaphyseal angle and humerocapitellar angle) criteria. Excellent results were achieved in 71 (63%) patients, 33 (29%) had good results, 5 (4.4%) fair, and 3 (2.6%) poor. All patients with fair or poor outcomes were older than ten years of age. Elevated, straight-arm traction is safe and effective in children younger than ten years. It can be effectively used in an environment that can provide ordinary paediatric medical care and general orthopaedic expertise. The outcomes compare with supracondylar fractures treated surgically in specialist centres

We examined 204 children (137 boys and 67 girls) aged 12 years and under with septic arthritis. Their mean age was 31.1 months (1 to 144; SD 41.6). The most common joints affected were the knees and shoulders. Joints in the upper limb were affected more often in younger children and in the lower limb in those who were older. The mean age for an infection was 12 months in the shoulder and 73 months in the hip. The most common organisms cultured were species of Salmonella

Recent reports have suggested an increase in the number of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in children, although their true incidence is unknown. The prognosis of the ACL-deficient knee in young active individuals is poor because of secondary meniscal tears, persistent instability and early-onset osteoarthritis. The aim of surgical reconstruction is to provide stability while avoiding physeal injury. Techniques of reconstruction include transphyseal, extraphyseal or partial physeal sparing procedures. In this paper we review the management of ACL tears in skeletally immature patients. . Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1562–9

Our aim was to determine the outcome of the treatment of trigger thumb in children. There was a rate of spontaneous recovery of 49% in those children whose thumbs were observed before a final decision to operate was made. Spontaneous recovery occurred more commonly in children over 12 months old. All patients treated by operation had a satisfactory outcome with few complications. The overall rate of recurrence was 4.0% and it was more common in younger children. Our results suggest that a conservative approach to surgery for this condition could be adopted

We analysed retrospectively the risk factors leading to femoral overgrowth after flexible intramedullary nailing in 43 children (mean age 7.1 years (3.6 to 12.0)) with fractures of the shaft of the femur. We reviewed their demographic data, mechanism of injury, associated injuries, the type and location of the fractures, the nail–canal diameter (NCD) ratios and femoral overgrowth at a mean follow-up of 40.7 months (25.2 to 92.7). At that time, the children were divided into two groups, those with femoral overgrowth of < 1 cm (Group 1), and those with overgrowth of ≥ 1 cm (Group 2). The mean femoral overgrowth of all patients was 0.6 cm at final follow-up. Overgrowth of ≥ 1 cm was noted in 11 children (25.6%). The NCD ratio was significantly lower in Group 2 than in Group 1, with an odds ratio of 30.0 (p = 0.003). We believe that a low NCD ratio is an indicator of an unstable configuration with flexible intramedullary nailing, and have identified an association between a low NCD ratio and femoral overgrowth resulting in leg-length discrepancy after flexible intramedullary nailing in paediatric femoral shaft fractures. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:254–8

Unstable fractures of the forearm in children present problems in management and in the indications for operative treatment. In children, unlike adults, the fractures nearly always unite, and up to 10° of angulation is usually considered to be acceptable. If surgical intervention is required the usual practice in the UK is to plate both bones as in an adult. We studied, retrospectively, 32 unstable fractures of the forearm in children treated by compression plating. Group A (20 children) had conventional plating of both forearm bones and group B (12 children) had plating of the ulna only. The mean age was 11 years in both groups and 23 (71%) of the fractures were in the midshaft. In group B an acceptable position of the radius was regarded as less than 10° of angulation in both anteroposterior (AP) and lateral planes, and with the bone ends hitched. This was achieved by closed means in all except two cases, which were therefore included in group A. Union was achieved in all patients, the mean time being 9.8 weeks in group A and 11.5 weeks in B. After a mean interval of at least 12 months, 14 children in group A and nine in group B had their fixation devices removed. We analysed the results after the initial operation in all 32 children. The 23 who had the plate removed were assessed at final review. The results were graded on the ability to undertake physical activities and an objective assessment of loss of rotation of the forearm. In group A, complications were noted in eight patients (40%) after fixation and in six (42%) in relation to removal of the radial plate. No complications occurred in group B. The final range of movement and radiological appearance were compared in the two groups. There was a greater loss of pronation than supination in both. There was, however, no limitation of function in any patient and no difference in the degree of rotational loss between the two groups. The mean radiological angulation in both was less than 10° in both AP and lateral views, which was consistent with satisfactory function. The final outcome for 23 patients was excellent or good in 12 of 14 (90%) in group A, despite the complications, and in eight of nine in group B (90%). If reduction and fixation of the fracture of the ulna alone restores acceptable alignment of the radius in unstable fractures of the forearm, operation on the radius can be avoided

Aims. After the initial correction of congenital talipes equinovarus (CTEV) using the Ponseti method, a subsequent dynamic deformity is often managed by transfer of the tendon of tibialis anterior (TATT) to the lateral cuneiform. Many surgeons believe the lateral cuneiform should be ossified before surgery is undertaken. This study quantifies the ossification process of the lateral cuneiform in children with CTEV between one and three years of age. . Patients and Methods. The length, width and height of the lateral cuneiform were measured in 43 consecutive patients with unilateral CTEV who had been treated using the Ponseti method. Measurements were taken by two independent observers on standardised anteroposterior and lateral radiographs of both feet taken at one, two and three years of age. Results. All dimensions of the lateral cuneiform on the affected side increased annually but remained smaller than the corresponding dimensions of the unaffected foot (p < 0.01). The lateral cuneiform resembled a 9 mm cube at two years and an 11 mm cube at three years. Conclusion. At one and two years, the ossification centre of the lateral cuneiform may not be large enough to accommodate a drill hole for tendon transfer. However, by three years, it has undergone sufficient ossification to do so. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:1109–14

The atlas of Greulich and Pyle for skeletal maturity and epiphyseal closure is widely used in many countries to assess skeletal age and to plan orthopaedic surgery. The data used to compile the atlas were collected from institutionalised American children in the 1950s. In order to determine whether the atlas was relevant to subSaharan Africa, we compared skeletal age, according to the atlas, with chronological age in 139 skeletally immature Malawian children and young adults with an age range from 1 year 11 months to 28 years 5 months. The height and weight of each patient were also measured in order to calculate the body mass index. The skeletal age of 119 patients (85.6%) was lower than the chronological age. The mean difference was 20.0 ± 24.1 months (t-test, p = 0.0049), and the greatest difference 100 months. The atlas is thus inaccurate for this group of children. The body mass index in 131 patients was below the normal range of 20 to 25 kg/m. 2. . The reasons for the low skeletal age in this group of children are discussed. Poor nutrition and chronic diseases such as malaria and diarrhoea which are endemic in Malawi are likely to be contributing factors. We did not find any correlation between the reduction in body mass index in our patients and the degree of retardation of skeletal age

Of 48 consecutive children with Gartland III supracondylar fractures, 11 (23%) had evidence of vascular injury, with an absent radial pulse. The hand was pink and warm in eight and white and cold in the other three patients. They underwent colour-coded duplex scanning (CCDS) and ultrasound velocimetry (UV) to investigate the patency of the brachial artery and arterial blood flow. In seven patients with a pink pulseless hand, CCDS showed a displaced, kinked and spastic brachial artery and a thrombosis was present in the other. In all cases UV showed reduced blood flow in the hand. In three patients with a white pulseless hand, scanning demonstrated a laceration in the brachial artery and/or thrombosis. In all cases, the fracture was reduced under general anaesthesia and fixed with Kirschner wires. Of the seven patients with a pink pulseless hand without thrombosis, the radial pulse returned after reduction in four cases. The remaining three underwent exploration, along with the patients with laceration in the brachial artery and/or thrombosis. We believe that the traditional strategy of watchful waiting in children in whom the radial pulse remains absent in spite of good peripheral perfusion should be revisited. Vascular investigation using these non-invasive techniques that are quick and reliable is recommended in the management of these patients. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:694–98

We compared the results of primary ultrasonographic examination of 163 children with 224 suspected fractures with the subsequent radiological findings. The aim was to assess the value of ultrasound in the diagnosis of fractures in children. We found a good correlation for fractures of the long bones of the upper and lower limbs. Ultrasound was most reliable for the detection of simple femoral and humeral diaphyseal fractures and fractures of the forearm. It was less dependable for compound injuries and fractures adjacent to joints, lesions of the small bones of the hand and foot, non-displaced epiphyseal fractures (Salter-Harris type 1) or those with a fracture line of less than 1mm. We were able to distinguish several types of fracture in which the use of ultrasound alone gave reliable information and further radiography was unnecessary. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of skeletal ultrasonographic studies in children

We present a retrospective review of 167 patients aged 18 years and under who were treated for chronic haematogenous osteomyelitis at our elective orthopaedic hospital in Malawi over a period of four years. The median age at presentation was eight years (1 to 18). There were 239 hospital admissions for treatment during the period of the study. In 117 patients one admission was necessary, in 35 two, and in 15 more than two. A surgical strategy of infection control followed by reconstruction and stabilisation was employed, based on the Beit CURE radiological classification of chronic haematogenous osteomyelitis as a guide to treatment. At a minimum follow-up of one year after the end of the study none of the patients had returned to our hospital with recurrent infection. A total of 350 operations were performed on the 167 patients. This represented 6.7% of all children’s operations performed in our hospital during this period. One operation only was required in 110 patients and none required more than three. Below-knee amputation was performed in two patients with chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis as the best surgical option for function. The most common organism cultured from operative specimens was Staphylococcus aureus, and the tibia was the bone most commonly affected. Polyostotic osteomyelitis occurred in four patients. We believe this is the largest reported series of patients treated for chronic haematogenous osteomyelitis

Peripheral limb ischaemia is rare in children. We have treated only 12 infants and children with this condition in the past 15 years at the Royal Hospital for Sick Children in Glasgow. There were nine neonates and three older children. Most were suffering from life-threatening illnesses or severe infection. Two were born with ischaemic arms with no apparent cause. We have analysed the factors leading to ischaemia, the outcome of the initial treatment and the later orthopaedic problems. Two required amputation of both legs, one of an arm, two of feet and one of toes. Two had skin grafts. All surgery was performed after demarcation was well established and delayed closure was used after amputation. Five children developed limb-length discrepancy or an angular deformity. To date two have required additional corrective surgery

Aims

We present the clinical and radiographic outcome of 81 children with Gartland type I to III supracondylar humeral fractures at a minimum follow-up of ten years (mean 12.1 years; 10.3 to 16.1) following injury.

We examined differences in the rate of open reduction, operating time, length of hospital stay and outcome between two groups of children with displaced supracondylar fractures of the humerus who underwent surgery either within 12 hours of the injury or later. There were 77 children with type-3 supracondylar fractures. Of these, in 43 the fracture was reduced and pinned within 12 hours and in 34 more than 12 hours after injury. Both groups were similar in regard to gender, age and length of follow-up. Bivariate and logistical regression analysis showed no statistical difference between the groups. The number of peri-operative complications was low and did not affect the outcome regardless of the timing of treatment. Our study confirmed that the treatment of uncomplicated displaced supracondylar fractures of the humerus can be early or delayed. In these circumstances operations at night can be avoided