We report on the use of the Ilizarov method to treat 40 consecutive fractures of the tibial shaft (35 AO 42C fractures and five AO 42B3 fractures) in adults. There were 28 men and 12 women with a mean age of 43 years (19 to 81). The series included 19 open fractures (six Gustilo grade 3A and 13 grade 3B) and 21 closed injuries. The mean time from injury to application of definitive Ilizarov frame was eight days (0 to 35) with 36 fractures successfully uniting without the need for any bone-stimulating procedure. The four remaining patients with nonunion healed with a second frame. There were no amputations and no deep infections. None required intervention for malunion. The total time to healing was calculated from date of injury to removal of the frame, with a median of 166 days (mean 187, (87 to 370)). Minor complications included snapped wires in two patients and minor pin-site infections treated with oral antibiotics in nine patients (23%). Clinical scores were available for 32 of the 40 patients at a median of 55 months (mean 62, (26 to 99)) post-injury, with ‘good’ Olerud and Molander ankle scores (median 80, mean 75, (10 to 100)), ‘excellent’ Lysholm knee scores (median 97, mean 88, (29 to 100)), a median Tegner activity score of 4 (mean 4, (0 to 9)) (comparable to ‘moderately heavy labour / cycling and jogging’) and Short Form-12 scores that exceeded the mean of the population as a whole (median physical component score 55 (mean 51, (20 to 64)), median mental component score 57 (mean 53, (21 to 62)). In conclusion, the Ilizarov method is a safe and reliable way of treating complex tibial shaft fractures with a high rate of primary union.

Limb-injury severity scores are designed to assess orthopaedic and vascular injuries. In Gustilo type-IIIA and type-IIIB injuries they have poor sensitivity and specificity to predict salvage or outcome.

We have designed a trauma score to grade the severity of injury to the covering tissues, the bones and the functional tissues, grading the three components from one to five. Seven comorbid conditions known to influence the management and prognosis have been given a score of two each. The score was validated in 109 consecutive open injuries of the tibia, 42 type-IIIA and 67 type-IIIB. The total score was used to assess the possibilities of salvage and the outcome was measured by dividing the injuries into four groups according to their scores as follows: group I scored less than 5, group II 6 to 10, group III 11 to 15 and group IV 16 or more.

A score of 14 to indicate amputation had the highest sensitivity and specificity. Our trauma score compared favourably with the Mangled Extremity Severity score in sensitivity (98% and 99%), specificity (100% and 17%), positive predictive value (100% and 97.5%) and negative predictive value (70% and 50%), respectively. A receiver-operating characteristic curve constructed for 67 type-IIIB injuries to assess the efficiency of the scores to predict salvage, showed that the area under the curve for this score was better (0.988 (± 0.013 sem)) than the Mangled Extremity Severity score (0.938 (± 0.039 sem)). All limbs in group IV and one in group III underwent amputation. Of the salvaged limbs, there was a significant difference in the three groups for the requirement of a flap for wound cover, the time to union, the number of surgical procedures required, the total days as an in-patient and the incidence of deep infection (p < 0.001 for all). The individual scores for covering and functional tissues were also found to offer specific guidelines in the management of these complex injuries.

The scoring system was found to be simple in application and reliable in prognosis for both limb-salvage and outcome measures in type-IIIA and type-IIIB open injuries of the tibia.

A high rate of complications is associated with open reduction and internal fixation of Sanders type 4 fractures of the calcaneum. We assessed the long-term outcome of 83 Sanders type 4 comminuted intra-articular fractures of the calcaneum in 64 patients who underwent non-operative treatment between 1999 and 2005. Each fracture was treated by closed reduction and immobilisation in a long leg cast. Patients were reviewed every three months in the first year, and every six months thereafter. At each visit, the involved ankles were assessed by the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) criteria. The degree of fracture healing and the presence of osteoarthritis were assessed.

At a mean follow-up of 51 months (24 to 70) the mean AOFAS score was 72 (52 to 92). Osteoarthritis was scored radiologically using Graves’ classification and was evident in the subtalar joints of 75 ankles (90%) on x-ray and in all ankles on CT scans, of which 20 were grade 0 or 1, 39 grade 2, and 24 grade 3.

A non-operative approach to treating these fractures may be simpler, less expensive, easier to administer with fewer complications, and may be better tolerated than surgery, by many patients.

We present two cases of metastatic lung cancer which occurred at the site of a previously united tibial fracture. Both patients were treated with a locked intramedullary nail. The patients presented with metastases at the site of their initial fracture approximately 16 and 13 months after injury respectively.

We discuss this unusual presentation and review the relevant literature. We are unaware of any previous reports of a metastatic tumour occurring at the site of an orthopaedic implant used to stabilise a non-pathological fracture. These cases demonstrate the similar clinical presentation of infection and malignancy: a diagnosis which should always be considered in such patients.

This retrospective study compared post-operative epidural analgesia (E), continuous peripheral nerve blocks (CPNB) and morphine infusion (M) in 68 children undergoing limb reconstruction with circular frames. The data collected included episodes of severe pain, post-operative duration of analgesia, requirement for top-up analgesia, number of osteotomies, side effects and complications. There was a significant difference between the number of episodes of severe pain in patients receiving a morphine infusion and those receiving epidurals or CPNB (M vs E, p < 0.0001; M vs CPNB, p = 0.018). The CPNB group was associated with the lowest incidence of episodes of severe pain and top-up analgesia. Epidural analgesia was associated with significantly more nausea and vomiting than morphine infusion (p = 0.053) and CPNB (p = 0.023). It also had a significantly higher incidence of motor blockade than CPNB (p < 0.01). We found that the most effective method of post-operative analgesia for children undergoing lower limb reconstruction was sciatic nerve catheterisation and continuous infusion.

Adult presentation of neglected congenital muscular torticollis is rare. We report 12 patients with this condition who underwent a modified Ferkel’s release comprising a bipolar release of sternocleidomastoid with Z-lengthening. They had a mean age of 24 years (17 to 31) and were followed up for a minimum of two years. Post-operatively a cervical collar was applied for three weeks with intermittent supervised active assisted exercises for six weeks. Outcome was assessed using a modified Lee score and a Cheng and Tang score. The mean pre-operative rotational deficit was 8.25° (0° to 15°) and mean lateral flexion deficit was 20.42° (15° to 30°), which improved after treatment to a mean of 1.67° (0° to 5°) and 7.0° (4° to 14°) after treatment, respectively. According to the modified Lee scoring system, six patients had excellent results, two had good results and four had fair results, and using the Cheng and Tang score, eight patients had excellent results and four had good results.

Surgical management of adult patients with neglected congenital muscular torticollis using a modified Ferkel’s bipolar release gives excellent results. The range of neck movement and head tilt improved in all 12 patients and cosmesis improved in 11, despite the long-standing nature of the deformity.

Survivors of infantile meningococcal septicaemia often develop progressive skeletal deformity as a result of physeal damage at many sites, particularly in the lower limb. Distal tibial physeal arrest typically occurs with sparing of the distal fibular physis leading to a rapidly progressive varus deformity. There have been reports of isolated cases of this deformity, but to our knowledge there have been no papers which specifically describe the development of the deformity and the options for treatment.

Surgery to correct this deformity is complex because of the patient’s age, previous scarring and the multiplanar nature of the deformity. The surgical goal is to restore leg-length equality and the mechanical axis at the end of growth. Surgery should be planned and staged throughout growth in order to achieve the best functional results.

We report our experience in six patients (seven ankles) with this deformity, who were managed by corrective osteotomy using a programmable circular fixator.

We report the outcome of 32 patients (37 knees) who underwent hemicallostasis with a dynamic external fixator for osteoarthritis of the medial compartment of the knee. There were 16 men (19 knees) and 16 women (18 knees) with a mean age at operation of 54.6 years (27 to 72). The aim was to achieve a valgus overcorrection of 2° to 8° or mechanical axis at 62.5% (± 12.5%). At a mean follow-up of 62.8 months (51 to 81) there was no change in the mean range of movement, and no statistically significant difference in the Insall-Salvati index or tibial slope (p = 0.11 and p = 0.15, respectively). The mean hip-knee-ankle angle changed from 190.6 (183° to 197°) to 176.0° (171° to 181°), with a mean final position of the mechanical axis of 58.5% (35.1% to 71.2%).

The desired alignment was attained in 31 of 37 (84%) knees. There were 21 excellent, 13 good, two fair and one poor result according to the Oxford knee score with no correlation between age and final score. This score was at its best at one year with a statistically significant deterioration at two years (p = 0.001) followed by a small but not statistically significant deterioration until the final follow-up (p = 0.17). All the knees with Ahlback grade 1 osteoarthritis had excellent or good results. Complications included pin tract infections involving 16.4% of all pins used, delayed union in two, knee stiffness in four, fracture of the lateral cortex in one and ring sequestrum in one.

In conclusion, hemicallostasis provides precision in attaining the desired alignment without interfering with tibial slope or patellar height, and is relatively free of serious complications.

This annotation discusses the findings of two papers in the current issue describing the management of the neurovascular complications of supracondylar fractures of the humerus in childhood, with particular reference to the indications for and the timing of exploration of the brachial artery and the affected nerves.

A total of 25 children (37 legs and 51 segments) with coronal plane deformities around the knee were treated with the extraperiosteal application of a flexible two-hole plate and screws. The mean age was 11.6 years (5.5 to 14.9), the median angle of deformity treated was 8.3° and mean time for correction was 16.1 months (7 to 37.3). There was a mean rate of correction of 0.7° per month in the femur (0.3° to 1.5°), 0.5° per month in the tibia (0.1° to 0.9°) and 1.2° per month (0.1° to 2.2°) if femur and tibia were treated concurrently. Correction was faster if the child was under 10 years of age (p = 0.05). The patients were reviewed between six and 32 months after plate removal. One child had a rebound deformity but no permanent physeal tethers were encountered.

The guided growth technique, as performed using a flexible titanium plate, is simple and safe for treating periarticular deformities of the leg.

We retrospectively evaluated 18 patients with a mean age of 37.3 years (14 to 72) who had undergone pelvic reconstruction stabilised with a non-vascularised fibular graft after resection of a primary bone tumour. The mean follow-up was 10.14 years (2.4 to 15.7). The mean Musculoskeletal Tumor Society Score was 76.5% (50% to 100%). Primary union was achieved in the majority of reconstructions within a mean of 22.9 weeks (7 to 60.6). The three patients with delayed or nonunion all received additional therapy (chemotherapy/radiation) (p = 0.0162). The complication rate was comparable to that of other techniques described in the literature.

Non-vascularised fibular transfer to the pelvis is a simpler, cheaper and quicker procedure than other currently described techniques. It is a biological reconstruction with good results and a relatively low donor site complication rate. However, adjuvant therapy can negatively affect the outcome of such grafts.

Over recent years hip arthroscopic surgery has evolved into one of the most rapidly expanding fields in orthopaedic surgery. Complications are largely transient and incidences between 0.5% and 6.4% have been reported. However, major complications can and do occur. This article analyses the reported complications and makes recommendations based on the literature review and personal experience on how to minimise them.

Invasive group A streptococcus (iGAS) is the most common cause of monomicrobial necrotising fasciitis. Necrotising infections of the extremities may present directly to orthopaedic surgeons or by reference from another admitting specialty. Recent epidemiological data from the Health Protection Agency suggest an increasing incidence of iGAS infection in England. Almost 40% of those affected had no predisposing illnesses or risk factors, and the proportion of children presenting with infections has risen. These observations have prompted the Chief Medical Officer for the Central Alerting System in England to write to general practitioners and hospitals, highlighting the need for clinical vigilance, early diagnosis and rapid initiation of treatment in suspected cases.

The purpose of this annotation is to summarise the recent epidemiological trends, describe the presenting features and outline the current investigations and treatment of this rare but life-threatening condition.

We reviewed the clinical details and radiographs of 52 patients with ballistic fractures of the femur admitted to the International Committee of the Red Cross Hospital in Kenya (Lopiding), who had sustained injuries in neighbouring Sudan. In all cases there had been a significant delay in the initial surgery (> 24 hours), and all patients were managed without stabilisation of the fracture by internal or external fixation.

Of the 52 patients, three required an amputation for persisting infection of the fracture site despite multiple debridements. A further patient was treated by an excision arthroplasty of the hip, but this was carried out at the initial operation as a part of the required debridement.

All of the remaining 48 fractures healed. Four patients needed permanent shoe adaptation because of limb shortening of functional significance.

Although we do not advocate delaying treatment or using traction instead of internal or external fixation, we have demonstrated that open femoral fractures can heal despite limited resources.

We present an unusual cause of anterior tibial pain in a 24-year-old professional international football player who was found to have a synostosis of the middle-third of the diaphysis of the tibia and fibula.

This is a rarely described phenomenon. Conservative treatment is the recommended treatment of choice, but this failed in our patient. Resection produced resolution of symptoms; he remained symptom-free three years later.

A two-year retrospective survey in southern Ethiopia revealed that 49 amputations had been performed, 25 of which were for gangrene following tight splintage applied by traditional bone setters. The aim of this study was to determine if it was possible to reduce this incidence of gangrene by offering one-day instructional courses to bone setters. In ten separate one-day courses 112 tradition healers attended. In addition, two-day courses were given to local health assistants, who also received written instructions for the safe care of fractures. A two-year prospective study revealed a marked reduction in amputations, from 49 to 25, with only seven rather than 25 being required for gangrene.

We found that it is possible to educate traditional healers so that fewer gangrenous limbs require to be amputated.

Between June 1999 and May 2003 we undertook direct primary closure of the skin wounds of 173 patients with Gustilo and Anderson grade-IIIA and grade-IIIB open fractures. These patients were selected from a consecutive group of 557 with type-III injuries presenting during this time. Strict criteria for inclusion in the study included debridement within 12 hours of injury, no sewage or organic contamination, no skin loss either primarily or secondarily during debridement, a Ganga Hospital open injury skin score of 1 or 2 with a total score of ten or less, the presence of bleeding skin margins, the ability to approximate wound edges without tension and the absence of peripheral vascular disease. In addition, patients with polytrauma were excluded.

At a mean follow-up of 6.2 years (5 to 7), the outcome was excellent in 150 (86.7%), good in 11 (6.4%) and poor in 12 (6.9%). A total of 33 complications occurred in 23 patients including superficial infection in 11, deep infection in five and the requirement for a secondary skin flap in three. Six patients developed nonunion requiring further surgery, one of whom declined additional measures to treat an established infected nonunion.

Immediate skin closure when performed selectively with the above indications proved to be a safe procedure.

This study aimed to evaluate the use of pin leverage in the reduction of Gartland type III supracondylar fractures of the humerus in children. The study comprised 95 children, who were split into three groups according to the type of method of reduction used. Group 1, had an open reduction, group 2, had closed reduction and percutaneous pin fixation and group 3, the pin leverage technique. Each group was analysed according to the time to surgery, the duration of the procedure, the incidence of complications, and the clinical and radiological outcome.

The mean duration of the operative procedure in groups 1, 2 and 3 was 119 minutes (80 to 235), 57 minutes (20 to 110) and 68 minutes (30 to 90), respectively. At a mean follow-up of 30 months (12 to 63) the clinical results were declared excellent or good in all children and the radiological results intermediate in five patients in group 2. The results of the closed reduction using the pin leverage technique was classified as failure in two children.

Our findings lead us to believe that the pin leverage method of reduction gives good results in the treatment of Gartland type III fractures.

Over a two-year period, 265 Norwegian orthopaedic surgeons working at 71 institutions performed 63 484 operations under a tourniquet. Their replies to a questionnaire revealed that they mostly followed modern guidelines in their use of the tourniquet. Most felt that the tourniquet could be left on for two hours, and that it could be re-applied after 15 minutes. A total of 26 complications (one in 2442 operations) that might have been due to the tourniquet were reported, of which 15 were neurological. Three were in the upper limb (one in 6155 operations) and 12 in the lower limb (one in 3752 operations). Two were permanent (one in 31742 operations), but the remainder resolved within six months. One permanent and one transient complication occurred after tourniquet times of three hours. The incidence of tourniquet complications is still at least as high as that estimated in the 1970s.

Although supracondylar fracture is a very common elbow injury in childhood, there is no consensus on the timing of surgery, approach for open reduction and positioning of fixation wires. We report our ten-year experience between 1993 and 2003 in 291 children.

Most fractures (285; 98%) were extension injuries, mainly Gartland types II (73; 25%) and III (163; 56%). Six (2%) were open fractures and a neurovascular deficit was seen in 12 (4%) patients. Of the 236 children (81%) who required an operation, 181 (77%) were taken to theatre on the day of admission. Most (177; 75%) of the operations were performed by specialist registrars. Fixation was by crossed Kirschner wires in 158 of 186 (85%) patients and open reduction was necessary in 52 (22%).

A post-operative neurological deficit was seen in nine patients (4%) and three (1%) required exploration of the ulnar nerve. Only 22 (4%) patients had a long-term deformity, nine (3%) from malreduction and three (1%) because of growth arrest, but corrective surgery for functional limitation was required in only three (1%) patients.