Aims. Plating displaced proximal humeral fractures is associated with a high rate of screw perforation. Dynamization of the proximal screws might prevent these complications. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate a new gliding screw concept for plating proximal humeral fractures biomechanically. Methods. Eight pairs of three-part humeral fractures were randomly assigned for pairwise instrumentation using either a prototype gliding plate or a standard PHILOS plate, and four pairs were fixed using the gliding plate with bone cement augmentation of its proximal screws. The specimens were cyclically tested under progressively increasing loading until perforation of a screw. Telescoping of a screw, varus tilting and screw migration were recorded using optical motion tracking. Results. Mean initial stiffness (N/mm) was 581.3 (. sd. 239.7) for the gliding plate, 631.5 (. sd. 160.0) for the PHILOS and 440.2 (. sd. 97.6) for the gliding augmented plate without significant differences between the groups (p = 0.11). Mean varus tilting (°) after 7500 cycles was comparable between the gliding plate (2.6; . sd. 1.9), PHILOS (1.2; . sd. 0.6) and gliding augmented plate (1.7; . sd. 0.9) (p = 0.10). Similarly, mean screw migration(mm) after 7500 cycles was similar between the gliding plate (3.02; . sd. 2.85), PHILOS (1.30; . sd. 0.44) and gliding augmented plate (2.83; . sd. 1.18) (p = 0.13). Mean number of cycles until failure with 5° varus tilting were 12702 (. sd. 3687) for the gliding plate, 13948 (. sd. 1295) for PHILOS and 13189 (. sd. 2647) for the gliding augmented plate without significant differences between the groups (p = 0.66). Conclusion. Biomechanically, plate fixation using a new gliding screw technology did not show considerable advantages in comparison with fixation using a standard PHILOS plate. Based on the finding of telescoping of screws, however, it may represent a valid approach for further investigations into how to avoid the cut-out of screws. Cite this article: Y. P. Acklin, I. Zderic, J. A. Inzana, S. Grechenig, R. Schwyn, R. G. Richards, B. Gueorguiev. Biomechanical evaluation of a new gliding screw concept for the fixation of proximal humeral fractures. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:422–429. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.76.BJR-2017-0356.R1

Methods

Between 2005 and 2012, 50 patients (23 female, 27 male) with nonunion of the humeral shaft were included in this retrospective study. The mean age was 51.3 years (14 to 88). The patients had a mean of 1.5 prior operations (sd 1.2;1 to 8).

All patients were assessed according to a specific risk score in order to devise an optimal and individual therapy plan consistent with the Diamond Concept. In 32 cases (64%), a change in the osteosynthesis to an angular stable locking compression plate was performed. According to the individual risk an additional bone graft and/or bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) were applied.

We present a review of claims made to the NHS Litigation Authority (NHSLA) by patients with conditions affecting the shoulder and elbow, and identify areas of dissatisfaction and potential improvement. Between 1995 and 2012, the NHSLA recorded 811 claims related to the shoulder and elbow, 581 of which were settled. This comprised 364 shoulder (64%), and 217 elbow (36%) claims. A total of £18.2 million was paid out in settled claims. Overall diagnosis, mismanagement and intra-operative nerve injury were the most common reasons for litigation. The highest cost paid out resulted from claims dealing with incorrect, missed or delayed diagnosis, with just under £6 million paid out overall. Fractures and dislocations around the shoulder and elbow were common injuries in this category. All 11 claims following wrong-site surgery that were settled led to successful payouts.

This study highlights the diagnoses and procedures that need to be treated with particular vigilance. Having an awareness of the areas that lead to litigation in shoulder and elbow surgery will help to reduce inadvertent risks to patients and prevent dissatisfaction and possible litigation.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:574–9.

Objectives

Traumatic brachial plexus injury causes severe functional impairment of the arm. Elbow flexion is often affected. Nerve surgery or tendon transfers provide the only means to obtain improved elbow flexion. Unfortunately, the functionality of the arm often remains insufficient. Stem cell therapy could potentially improve muscle strength and avoid muscle-tendon transfer. This pilot study assesses the safety and regenerative potential of autologous bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell injection in partially denervated biceps.

Instability after arthroplasty of the shoulder is difficult to correct surgically. Soft-tissue procedures and revision surgery using unconstrained anatomical components are associated with a high rate of failure. The purpose of this study was to determine the results of revision of an unstable anatomical shoulder arthroplasty to a reverse design prosthesis. Between 2004 and 2007, 33 unstable anatomical shoulder arthroplasties were revised to a reverse design. The mean age of the patients was 71 years (53 to 86) and their mean follow-up was 42 months (25 to 71). The mean time to revision was 26 months (4 to 164). Pain scores improved significantly (pre-operative visual analogue scale (VAS) of 7.2 (sd 1.6); most recent VAS 2.2 (sd 1.9); p = 0.001). There was a statistically significant increase in mean active forward elevation from 40.2° (sd 27.3) to 97.0° (sd 36.2) (p = 0.001). There was no significant difference in internal (p = 0.93) or external rotation (p = 0.40). Radiological findings included notching in five shoulders (15%) and heterotopic ossification of the inferior capsular region in three (9%). At the last follow-up 31 shoulders (94%) were stable. The remaining two shoulders dislocated at 2.5 weeks and three months post-operatively, respectively. According to the Neer rating system, there were 13 excellent (40%), ten satisfactory (30%) and ten unsatisfactory results (30%). Revision of hemiarthroplasty or anatomical total shoulder replacement for instability using a reverse design prosthesis gives good short-term results.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:668–72.

Reverse total shoulder replacement (RTSR) depends on adequate deltoid function for a successful outcome. However, the anterior deltoid and/or axillary nerve may be damaged due to prior procedures or injury. The purpose of this study was to determine the compensatory muscle forces required for scapular plane elevation following RTSR when the anterior deltoid is deficient. The soft tissues were removed from six cadaver shoulders, except for tendon attachments. After implantation of the RTSR, the shoulders were mounted on a custom-made shoulder simulator to determine the mean force in each muscle required to achieve 30° and 60° of scapular plane elevation. Two conditions were tested: 1) Control with an absent supraspinatus and infraspinatus; and 2) Control with anterior deltoid deficiency. Anterior deltoid deficiency resulted in a mean increase of 195% in subscapularis force at 30° when compared with the control (p = 0.02). At 60°, the subscapularis force increased a mean of 82% (p < 0.001) and the middle deltoid force increased a mean of 26% (p = 0.04).

Scapular plane elevation may still be possible following an RTSR in the setting of anterior deltoid deficiency. When the anterior deltoid is deficient, there is a compensatory increase in the force required by the subscapularis and middle deltoid. Attempts to preserve the subscapularis, if present, might maximise post-operative function.

There is little information about the management of peri-prosthetic fracture of the humerus after total shoulder replacement (TSR). This is a retrospective review of 22 patients who underwent a revision of their original shoulder replacement for peri-prosthetic fracture of the humerus with bone loss and/or loose components. There were 20 women and two men with a mean age of 75 years (61 to 90) and a mean follow-up 42 months (12 to 91): 16 of these had undergone a previous revision TSR. Of the 22 patients, 12 were treated with a long-stemmed humeral component that bypassed the fracture. All their fractures united after a mean of 27 weeks (13 to 94). Eight patients underwent resection of the proximal humerus with endoprosthetic replacement to the level of the fracture. Two patients were managed with a clam-shell prosthesis that retained the original components. The mean Oxford shoulder score (OSS) of the original TSRs before peri-prosthetic fracture was 33 (14 to 48). The mean OSS after revision for fracture was 25 (9 to 31). Kaplan-Meier survival using re-intervention for any reason as the endpoint was 91% (95% confidence interval (CI) 68 to 98) and 60% (95% CI 30 to 80) at one and five years, respectively. There were two revisions for dislocation of the humeral head, one open reduction for modular humeral component dissociation, one internal fixation for nonunion, one trimming of a prominent screw and one re-cementation for aseptic loosening complicated by infection, ultimately requiring excision arthroplasty. Two patients sustained nerve palsies. Revision TSR after a peri-prosthetic humeral fracture associated with bone loss and/or loose components is a salvage procedure that can provide a stable platform for elbow and hand function. Good rates of union can be achieved using a stem that bypasses the fracture. There is a high rate of complications and function is not as good as with the original replacement

The outcome of an anatomical shoulder replacement depends on an intact rotator cuff. In 1981 Grammont designed a novel large-head reverse shoulder replacement for patients with cuff deficiency. Such has been the success of this replacement that it has led to a rapid expansion of the indications. We performed a systematic review of the literature to evaluate the functional outcome of each indication for the reverse shoulder replacement. Secondary outcome measures of range of movement, pain scores and complication rates are also presented.

Frozen shoulder is commonly encountered in general orthopaedic practice. It may arise spontaneously without an obvious predisposing cause, or be associated with a variety of local or systemic disorders. Diagnosis is based upon the recognition of the characteristic features of the pain, and selective limitation of passive external rotation. The macroscopic and histological features of the capsular contracture are well-defined, but the underlying pathological processes remain poorly understood. It may cause protracted disability, and imposes a considerable burden on health service resources. Most patients are still managed by physiotherapy in primary care, and only the more refractory cases are referred for specialist intervention. Targeted therapy is not possible and treatment remains predominantly symptomatic. However, over the last ten years, more active interventions that may shorten the clinical course, such as capsular distension arthrography and arthroscopic capsular release, have become more popular.

This review describes the clinical and pathological features of frozen shoulder. We also outline the current treatment options, review the published results and present our own treatment algorithm.

In light of the growing number of elderly osteopenic patients with distal humeral fractures, we discuss the history of their management and current trends. Under most circumstances operative fixation and early mobilisation is the treatment of choice, as it gives the best results. The relative indications for and results of total elbow replacement versus internal fixation are discussed

Radiological changes and differences between cemented and uncemented components of Grammont reverse shoulder arthroplasties (DePuy) were analysed at a mean follow-up of 9.6 years (8 to 12). Of 122 reverse shoulder arthroplasties implanted in five shoulder centres between 1993 and 2000, a total of 68 (65 patients) were available for study. The indications for reversed shoulder arthroplasty were cuff tear arthropathy in 48 shoulders, revision of shoulder prostheses of various types in 11 and massive cuff tear in nine. The development of scapular notching, bony scapular spur formation, heterotopic ossification, glenoid and humeral radiolucencies, stem subsidence, radiological signs of stress shielding and resorption of the tuberosities were assessed on standardised true anteroposterior and axillary radiographs.

A scapular notch was observed in 60 shoulders (88%) and was associated with the superolateral approach (p = 0.009). Glenoid radiolucency was present in 11 (16%), bony scapular spur and/or ossifications in 51 (75%), and subsidence of the stem and humeral radiolucency in more than three zones were present in three (8.8%) and in four (11.8%) of 34 cemented components, respectively, and in one (2.9%) and two (5.9%) of 34 uncemented components, respectively. Radiological signs of stress shielding were significantly more frequent with uncemented components (p < 0.001), as was resorption of the greater (p < 0.001) and lesser tuberosities (p = 0.009).

We report the long-term clinical and radiological outcomes of the Aequalis total shoulder replacement with a cemented all-polyethylene flat-back keeled glenoid component implanted for primary osteoarthritis between 1991 and 2003 in nine European centres. A total of 226 shoulders in 210 patients were retrospectively reviewed at a mean of 122.7 months (61 to 219) or at revision. Clinical outcome was assessed using the Constant score, patient satisfaction score and range of movement. Kaplan-Meier survivorship analysis was performed with glenoid revision for loosening and radiological glenoid loosening (sd) as endpoints. The Constant score was found to improve from a mean of 26.8 (sd 10.3) pre-operatively to 57.6 (sd 20.0) post-operatively (p < 0.001). Active forward flexion improved from a mean of 85.3° (sd 27.4) pre-operatively to 125° (sd 37.3) postoperatively (p < 0.001). External rotation improved from a mean of 7° (sd 6.5) pre-operatively to 30.3° (sd 21.8°) post-operatively (p < 0.001). Survivorship with revision of the glenoid component as the endpoint was 99.1% at five years, 94.5% at ten years and 79.4% at 15 years. Survivorship with radiological loosening as the endpoint was 99.1% at five years, 80.3% at ten years and 33.6% at 15 years.

Younger patient age and the curettage technique for glenoid preparation correlated with loosening. The rate of glenoid revision and radiological loosening increased with duration of follow-up, but not until a follow-up of five years. Therefore, we recommend that future studies reporting radiological outcomes of new glenoid designs should report follow-up of at least five to ten years.

Fractures of the proximal humerus can lead to malalignment of the humeral head, necrosis and post-traumatic osteoarthritis. In such cases surface replacement might be a promising option.

A total of 28 shoulders with glenohumeral arthritis subsequent to a fracture underwent surface replacement arthroplasty of the humeral head in patients with a mean age of 60 years (35 to 83). On the basis of the inclination of the impacted head, post-traumatic arthritis was divided into three types: type 1, an impacted fracture of the head in an anatomical position (seven cases); type 2, a valgus impacted fracture (13 cases); type 3, a varus impacted fracture (eight cases). The outcome was measured by means of the Constant score.

According to the Boileau classification of the sequelae of fractures of the proximal humerus, all 28 patients had a final result of intra-capsular category 1. The mean Constant score for the 28 shoulders increased from 23.2 points (2 to 45) pre-operatively to 55.1 points (20 to 89) at a mean of 31 months (24 to 66) post-operatively. Valgus impacted fractures had significantly better results (p < 0.039).

Surface replacement arthroplasty can provide good results for patients with post-traumatic osteoarthritis of the shoulder. Their use avoids post-operative complications of the humeral shaft, such as peri-prosthetic fractures. Further surgery can be undertaken more easily as the bone stock is preserved.

Mechanical loosening which begins with early-onset migration of the prosthesis is the major reason for failure of the Souter-Strathclyde elbow replacement. In a prospective study of 18 Souter-Strathclyde replacements we evaluated the patterns of migration using roentgen stereophotogrammetric analysis. We had previously reported the short-term results after a follow-up of two years which we have now extended to a mean follow-up of 8.2 years (1 to 11.3). Migration was assessed along the co-ordinal axes and overall micromovement was expressed as the maximum total point movement. The alignment of the prosthesis and the presence of radiolucent lines were examined on conventional standardised radiographs.

All the humeral components showed increased and variable patterns of migration at the extended follow-up and four humeral components were revised. The maximum total point movement at two years in the revised prostheses was 1.8 mm (sd 1.0) and in the non-revised 0.7 mm (sd 0.5, p = 0.01). Most humeral components migrated into external rotation resulting in an anterior and varus tilt. The ulnar components remained stable.

We analysed the outcome of the Coonrad-Morrey total elbow replacement used for fracture of the distal humerus in elderly patients with no evidence of inflammatory arthritis and compared the results for early versus delayed treatment. We studied a total of 32 patients with 15 in the early treatment group and 17 in the delayed treatment group. The mean follow-up was 56.1 months (18 to 88). The percentage of excellent to good results based on the Mayo elbow performance score was not significantly different, 84% in the early group and 79% in the delayed group. Subjective satisfaction was 92% in both the groups.

One patient in the early group developed chronic regional pain syndrome and another type 4 aseptic loosening. Two elbows in the early group also showed type 1 radiological loosening.

Two patients in the delayed group had an infection, two an ulnar nerve palsy, one developed heterotopic ossification and one type 4 aseptic loosening. Two elbows in this group also showed type 1 radiological loosening. The Kaplan-Meier survivorship analysis for the early and delayed treatment groups was 93% at 88 months and 76% at 84 months, respectively.

No significant difference was found between the two groups.

This study prospectively evaluated the outcome of manipulation under anaesthesia and hydrodilatation as treatments for adhesive capsulitis. A total of 36 patients (38 shoulders) were randomised to receive either method, with all patients being treated in stage II of the disease process.

The mean age of the patients was 55.2 years (44 to 70) and the mean duration of symptoms was 33.7 weeks (12 to 76). Eighteen shoulders (17 patients) underwent manipulation under anaesthesia and 20 (19 patients) had hydrodilatation. There were three insulin-dependent diabetics in each group. The mean visual analogue score in the manipulation under anaesthesia group was 5.7 (3 to 8.5; n = 18) before treatment, 4.7 (0 to 8.5; n = 16) at two months (paired t-test p = 0.02), and 2.7 (0 to 9; n = 16) at six months (paired t-test, p = 0.0006). The mean score in the hydrodilatation group was 6.1 (4 to 10; n = 20) before treatment, 2.4 (0 to 8; n = 18) at two months (paired t-test, p = 0.001), and 1.7 (0 to 7; n = 18) at six months (paired t-test, p = 0.0006). The visual analogue scores in the hydrodilatation group were significantly better than in the manipulation under anaesthesia group over the six-month follow-up period (p < 0.0001).

The mean Constant score in those manipulated was 36 (26 to 66) before treatment, 58.5 (24 to 90) at two months (paired t-test, p = 0.001) and 59.5 (23 to 85) at six months (paired t-test, p = 0.0006). In the hydrodilatation group it was 28.8 (18 to 55) before treatment, 57.4 (17 to 80) at two months (paired t-test, p = 0.0004) and 65.9 (28 to 92) at six months (paired t-test, p = 0.0005). The Constant scores in the hydrodilatation group were significantly better than in the manipulated group over the six-month period of follow-up (p = 0.02).

The range of movement improved in all patients over the six months, but was not significantly different between the groups. At the final follow-up, 94% of patients (17 of 18) were satisfied or very satisfied after hydrodilatation compared with 81% (13 of 16) of those receiving a manipulation.

Most of our patients were treated successfully, but those undergoing hydrodilatation did better than those who were manipulated.

The Acclaim total elbow replacement is a modular system which allows implantation in both unlinked and linked modes. The results of the use of this implant in primary total elbow replacement in 36 patients, operated on between July 2000 and August 2002, are presented at a mean follow-up of 36 months (24 to 49). Only one patient did not have good relief of pain, but all had improved movement and function.

No implant showed clinical or radiological loosening, although one had a lucent area in three of seven humeral zones. The short-term results of the Acclaim total elbow replacement are encouraging. However, 11 patients (30.5%) suffered an intra-operative fracture of the humeral condyle. This did not affect the outcome, or the requirement for further surgery, except in one case where the fracture failed to unite. This problem has hopefully been addressed by redesigning the humeral resection guide. Other complications included three cases of ulnar neuropathy (8.3%) and one of deep infection (2.8%).

We compared the outcome of peri-operative humeral condylar fractures in patients undergoing a Coonrad-Morrey semiconstrained total elbow replacement with that of patients with rheumatoid arthritis undergoing the same procedure without fractures. In a consecutive series of 40 elbows in 33 patients, 13 elbows had a fracture in either condyle peri-operatively, and 27 elbows were intact. The fractured condyle was either fixed internally or excised. We found no statistical difference in the patients’ background, such as age, length of follow-up, immobilisation period, Larsen’s radiological grade, or Steinbrocker’s stage and functional class. There was also no statistical difference between the groups in relation to the Mayo Elbow Performance Score, muscle strength, range of movement, or radiolucency around the implants at a mean of 4.8 years (1.1 to 8.0) follow-up. We conclude that fractured condyles can be successfully treated with either internal fixation or excision, and cause no harmful effect

We studied 11 patients (14 elbows) with gross rheumatoid deformity of the elbow, treated by total arthroplasty using the Kudo type-5 unlinked prosthesis, and who were evaluated between five and 11 years after operation. Massive bone defects were augmented by autogenous bone grafts. There were no major complications such as infection, subluxation or loosening. In most elbows relief from pain and stability were achieved. The results, according to the Mayo Elbow Performance Score, were excellent in eight, good in five and fair in one. In most elbows there was minimal or no resorption of the grafted bone. There were no radiolucent lines around the stems of the cementless components. This study shows that even highly unstable rheumatoid elbows can be replaced successfully using an unlinked prosthesis, with augmentation by grafting for major defects of bone.

There have been few reports in the literature of total elbow arthroplasty extending beyond 10 to 15 years. We reviewed 40 patients (41 elbows) with a mean age of 56 years (19 to 83) who had undergone a Coonrad/Coonrad-Morrey elbow arthroplasty by one surgeon for various diagnoses between 1974 and 1994. Surgical selection excluded patients with previous elbow infection or who refused to accept a sedentary level of elbow activity postoperatively. Objective data were collected from charts, radiographs, clinical photographs and supplemented by the referring orthopaedic surgeons’ records and radiographs if health or distance prevented a patient from returning for final review. Subjective outcome was defined by patient satisfaction.

Of the 41 elbows, 21 were functional between 10 and 14 years after operation, ten between 15 and 19 years and ten between 20 and 31 years. There were 14 complications and 13 revisions, but no cases of acute infection, or permanent removal of any implant.