Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial debilitating disease that affects over four million Canadians. Although the mechanism(s) of OA onset is unclear, the biological outcome is cartilage degradation. Cartilage degradation is typified by the progressive loss of extracellular matrix components - aggrecan and type II collagen (Col II) – partly due to the up-regulation of catabolic enzymes - aggrecanases a disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS-) 4 and 5 and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). There is currently no treatment that will prevent or repair joint damage, and current medications are aimed mostly at pain management. When pain becomes unmanageable arthroplastic surgery is often performed. Interest has developed over the presence of calcium crystals in the synovial fluid of OA patients, as they have been shown to activate synovial fibroblasts inducing the expression of catabolic agents. We recently discovered elevated levels of free calcium in the synovial fluid of OA patients and raised the question on its role in cartilage degeneration. Articular cartilage was isolated from 5 donors undergoing total hip replacement. Chondrocytes were recovered from the cartilage of each femoral head or knee by sequential digestion with Pronase followed by Collagenase and expanded in DMEM supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS. OA and normal human articular chondrocytes (PromoCell, Heidelberg, Germany) were transferred to 6-well plates in culture medium containing various concentrations of calcium (0.5, 1, 2.5, and 5 mM CaCl2), and IL-1β. Cartilage explants were prepared from the same donors and included cartilage with the cortical bone approximately 1 cm2 in dimension. Bovine articular cartilage explants (10 months) were used as a control. Explants were cultured in the above mentioned media, however, the incubation period was extended to 21 days. Immunohistochemistry was performed on cartilage explants to measure expression of Col X, MMP-13, and alkaline phosphatase. The sulfated glycosaminoglycan (GAG, predominantly aggrecan) content of cartilage was analyzed using the 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) dye-binding assay, and aggregan fragmentation was determined by Western blotting using antibody targeted to its G1 domain. Western blotting was also performed on cell lysate from both OA and normal chondrocytes to measure aggrecan, Col II, MMP-3 and −13, ADAMTS-4 and −5. Ca2+ significantly decreased the proteoglycan content of the cartilage explants as determined by the DMMB assay. The presence of aggrecan and Col II also decreased as a function of calcium, in both the human OA and bovine cartilage explants. When normal and OA chondrocytes were cultured in medium supplemented with increasing concentrations of calcium (0.5–5 mM Ca2+), aggrecan and Col II expression decreased dose-dependently. Surprisingly, increasing Ca2+ did not induce the release of MMP-3, and −13, or ADAMTS-4 and-5 in conditioned media from OA and normal chondrocytes. Interestingly, inhibition of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor CaSR) reversed the effects of calcium on matrix protein synthesis. We provide evidence that Ca2+ may play a direct role in cartilage degradation by regulating the expression of aggrecan and Col II through activation of CaSR

Degenerative disc disease (DDD) is a common cause of lower back pain. Calcification of the intervertebral disc (IVD) has been correlated with DDD, and is especially prevalent in scoliotic discs. The appearance of calcium deposits has been shown to increase with age, and its occurrence has been associated with several other disorders such as hyperparathyroidism, chondrocalcinosis, and arthritis. Trauma, vertebral fusion and infection have also been shown to increase the incidence of IVD calcification. Our data indicate that Ca. 2+. and expression of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) are significantly increased in mild to severely degenerative human IVDs. In this study, we evaluated the effects of Ca. 2+. and CaSR on the degeneration and calcification of IVDs. Human donor lumbar spines of Thompson grade 2, 3 and 4 through organ donations within 24 hs after death. IVD cells, NP and AF, were isolated from tissue by sequential digestion with Pronase followed by Collagenase. Cells were expanded for 7 days under standard cell culture conditions. Immunohistochemistry was performed on IVD tissue to validate the grade and expression of CaSR. Free calcium levels were also measured and compared between grades. Immunocytochemistry, Western blotting and RT-qPCR were performed on cultured NP and AF cells to demonstrate expression of CaSR, matrix proteins aggrecan and collagen, catabolic enzymes and calcification markers. IVD cells were cultured in increasing concentrations of Ca. 2+. [1.0-5.0 mM], CaSR allosteric agonist (cincalcet, 1 uM), and IL-1b [5 ng/mL] for 7 days. Ex vivo IVD organ cultures were prepared using PrimeGrowth Disc Isolation System (Wisent Bioproducts, Montreal, Quebec). IVDs were cultured in 1.0, 2.5 mM Ca. 2+. or with cinacalcet for 21 days to determine effects on disc degeneration, calcification and biomechanics. Complex modulus and structural stiffness of disc tissues was determined using the MACH-1 mechanical testing system (Biomomentum, Laval, Quebec). Ca. 2+. dose-dependently decreased matrix protein synthesis of proteoglycan and Col II in NP and AF cells, similar to treatment with IL-1b. (n = 4). Contrarily to IL-1b, Ca. 2+. and cincalcet did not significantly increase the expression of catabolic enzymes save ADAMTS5. Similar effects were observed in whole organ cultures, as Ca. 2+. and cinacalcet decreased proteoglycan and collagen content. Although both Ca. 2+. and cinacalcet increased the expression of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), only in Ca. 2+. -treated IVDs was there evidence of calcium deposits in NP and AF tissues as determined by von Kossa staining. Biomechanical studies on Ca. 2+. and cinacalcet-treated IVDs demonstrated decreases in complex modulus (p<0.01 and p<0.001, respectively; n=5), however, only Ca. 2+. -treated IVDs was there significant increases stiffness in NP and AF tissues (p<0.001 and p<0.05, respectively; n=3). Our results suggest that changes in the local concentrations of calcium and activation of CaSR affects matrix protein synthesis, calcification and IVD biomechanics. Ca. 2+. may be a contributing factor in IVD degeneration and calcification

Calcification of the intervertebral disc (IVD) has been correlated with degenerative disc disease (DDD), a common cause of low back pain. The appearance of calcium deposits has been shown to increase with age, and its occurrence has been associated with several other disorders such as hyperparathyroidism, chondrocalcinosis, and arthritis. Trauma, vertebral fusion and infection have also been shown to increase the incidence of IVD calcification. The role of IVD calcification in the development DDD is unknown. Our preliminary data suggest that ionic calcium content and expression of the extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) and regulator of calcium homeostasis, are increased in the degenerated discs. However, its role in DDD remains unclear. IVD Cells: Bovine and normal human IVD cells were incubated in PrimeGrowth culture medium (Wisent Bioproducts, Canada; Cat# 319–510-CL, −S1, and S2) and supplemented with various concentrations of calcium (1.0, 1.5, 2.5, 5.0 mM), a CaSR agonist [5 µM], or IL-1β [10 ng/ml] for 7 days. Accumulated matrix protein was quantitated for aggrecan and type II collagen (Col II) by Western blotting. Conditioned medium was also collected from cells treated for 24h and measured for the synthesis and release of total proteoglycan using the DMMB assay and Western blotting for Col II content. IVD Cultures: Caudal IVDs from tails of 20–24 month old steers were isolated with the PrimeGrowth Isolation kit (Wisent Bioproducts, Canada). IVDs were cultured for 4 weeks in PrimeGrowth culture medium supplemented with calcium (1.0, 2.5, or 5.0 mM), or a CaSR agonist [5 µM]. Cell viability was measured in NP and AF tissue using Live/Dead Imaging kit (ThermoFisher, Waltham, MA), to determine if Ca2+ effects cell viability end the expression of aggrecan and Col II was evaluated in the IVD tissue by Western blotting. Histological sections were prepared to determine total proteoglycan content, alkaline phosphatase expression and degree of mineralisation by von Kossa staining. The accumulation of aggrecan and Col II decreased dose-dependently in IVD cells following supplementation with calcium or the CaSR agonist. Conditioned medium also demonstrated decreases in the synthesis and release of proteoglycan and collagen with increasing Ca2+ dose or direct activation of the CaSR with agonist. A similar phenomenon was observed for total proteoglycan and aggrecan and Col II in IVDs following calcium supplementation or the CaSR agonist. In addition to decreases in Col II and aggrecan, increases in alkaline phosphatase expression and mineralisation was observed in IVDs cultured in elevated Ca2+ concentrations without affecting cell viability. Our results suggest that changes in the local concentrations of calcium are not benign, and that activation of the CaSR may be a contributing factor in IVD degeneration. Determining ways to minimise Ca2+ infiltration into the disc may mitigate disc degeneration

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a chronic degenerative joint disorder that affects millions of people. There are currently no therapies that reverse or repair cartilage degradation in OA patients. Link N (DHLSDNYTLDHDRAIH) is a naturally occurring peptide that has been shown to increase both collagen and proteoglycan synthesis in chondrocytes and intervertebral disc cells [1,2]. Recent evidence indicates that Link N activates Smad1/5 signaling in cultured rabbit IVD cells presumably by interacting with the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) type II receptor [3], however, whether a similar mechanism exists in chondrocytes remains unknown. In this study we determined whether Link N can stimulate matrix production and reverse degradation of human OA cartilage under inflammatory conditions. OA cartilage was obtained from donors undergoing total knee arthroplasty with informed consent. OA cartilage/bone explants and OA chondrocytes were prepared from each donor. Cells were prepared in alginate beads (2×106 cells/mL) for gene expression analysis using qPCR. Cells and cartilage explants were exposed to IL-1β (10ng/ml), human Link N (hLN) (1μg/ml) or co-incubated with IL-1β+hLN for 7 and 21 days, respectively. Media was supplemented every three days. Cartilage/bone explants were measured for total glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content (retained and released) using the dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) assay. Western blotting was performed to determine aggrecan and collagen expression in cartilage tissue. To determine NFκB activation, Western blotting was performed for detection of P-p65 in chondrocytes cultured in 2D following 10 min exposure of IL-1β in the presence of 10, 100, or 1000 ng/mL hLN. Link N significantly decreased in a dose-dependent manner IL-1β-induced NFκB activation in chondrocytes. Gene expression profiling of matrix proteins indicated that there was a trend towards increased aggrecan and decreased collagen type I expression following hLN and IL-1β co-incubation. HLN significantly decreased the IL-1β-induced expression of catabolic enzymes MMP3 and MMP13, and the neuronal growth factor NGF (p < 0 .0001, n=3). In OA cartilage/bone explants, hLN reversed the loss of proteoglycan in cartilage tissue and significantly increased its synthesis whilst in the presence of IL-1β. Link N stimulated proteoglycan synthesis and decreased MMP expression in OA chondrocytes under inflammatory conditions. One mechanism for Link N in preserving matrix protein synthesis may, in part, be due to its ability in rapidly suppressing IL-1β-induced activation of NF-κB. Further work is needed to determine whether Link N directly inhibits the IL-1β receptor or interferes with NFκB activation through an independent pathway(s)

Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal stem cells (BMSCs) are a promising cell source for treating articular cartilage defects. Quality of cartilaginous repair tissue following BMSC transplantation has been shown to correlate with functional outcome. Therefore, tissue-engineering variables, such as cell expansion environment and seeding density of scaffolds, are currently under investigation. The objectives of this study were to demonstrate chondrogenic differentiation of BMSCs seeded within a collagen I scaffold following isolation and expansion in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) environments, and assess the impact of seeding density on in vitro chondrogenesis. It was hypothesised that both expansion protocols would produce BMSCs capable of hyaline-like chondrogenesis with an optimal seeding density of 10 million cells/cm3. Ovine BMSCs were isolated in a 2D environment by plastic adherence, expanded to passage two in flasks containing expansion medium, and seeded within collagen I scaffolds (6 mm diameter, 3.5 mm thickness and 0.115 ± 0.020 mm pore size; Integra LifeSciences Corp.) at densities of 50, 10, 5, 1, and 0.5 million BMSCs/cm3. For 3D isolation and expansion, bone marrow aspirates containing known quantities of mononucleated cells (BMNCs) were seeded on scaffolds at 50, 10, 5, 1, and 0.5 million BMNCs/cm3 and cultured in expansion medium for an equivalent duration to 2D expansion. All cell-scaffold constructs were differentiated in vitro in chondrogenic medium containing transforming growth factor-beta three for 21 days and assessed with RT-qPCR, safranin O staining, histological scoring using the Bern Score, collagen immunofluorescence, and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) quantification. Two dimensional-expanded BMSCs seeded at all densities were capable of proteoglycan production and displayed increased expressions of aggrecan and collagen II mRNA relative to pre-differentiation controls. Collagen II deposition was apparent in scaffolds seeded at 0.5–10 million BMSCs/cm3. Chondrogenesis of 2D-expanded BMSCs was most pronounced in scaffolds seeded at 5–10 million BMSCs/cm3 based on aggrecan and collagen II mRNA, safranin O staining, Bern Score, total GAG, and GAG/DNA. For 3D-expanded BMSC-seeded scaffolds, increased aggrecan and collagen II mRNA expressions relative to controls were noted with all densities. Proteoglycan deposition was present in scaffolds seeded at 0.5–50 million BMNCs/cm3, while collagen II deposition occurred in scaffolds seeded at 10–50 million BMNCs/cm3. The highest levels of aggrecan and collagen II mRNA, Bern Score, total GAG, and GAG/DNA occurred with seeding at 50 million BMNCs/cm3. Within a collagen I scaffold, 2D- and 3D-expanded BMSCs are capable of hyaline-like chondrogenesis with optimal cell seeding densities of 5–10 million BMSCs/cm3 and 50 million BMNCs/cm3, respectively. Accordingly, these densities could be considered when seeding collagen I scaffolds in BMSC transplantation protocols

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial disease that affects millions of Canadians. Although, there is not one specific mechanism that causes OA, the biological outcome is cartilage degradation. The articular cartilage in joints is composed primarily of the proteoglycan aggrecan and type II collagen (Col II) which together provide cartilage with functional properties. In OA, the imbalance of the anabolic and catabolic activities of chondrocytes favors cartilage catalysis. The main inflammatory cytokine involved in cartilage degradation is interleukin (IL) 1β. It has previously been demonstrated that Link N, a 16 residue peptide derived from proteolytic cleavage of link protein, can stimulate matrix proteins in normal cartilage and intervertebral discs (IVDs). Recently, we showed that a shorter sequence of Link N (sLink N), consisting of the first 8 residues of the peptide, has the potential to increase synthesis of matrix proteins in IVD cells in vitro and stimulate repair in ex vivo IVD organ culture. There are currently no treatments that actively repair cartilage in OA joints. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the potential of sLink N as a therapeutic agent in the repair of OA cartilage. OA cartilage was isolated from four donors undergoing total knee replacement (50–70 y). Cells were recovered from the cartilage of each knee by sequential digestion with Pronase followed by Collagenase, and expanded in PrimeGrowth culture medium (Wisent Bioproducts, Canada; Cat# 319–510-CL, −S1, and −S2). After 7 days in culture, cells were treated for 24h with sLink N (0.5, 5, 50, 500 or 5000 ng/ml) or sLink N in combination with IL-1β (1 ng/ml) to mimic an inflammatory milieu. Conditioned media was collected and measured for proteoglycan (GAG) release using the safranin O and for Col II synthesis by Western blotting. Human articular cartilage explants including cartilage with subchondral bone were prepared from the same donors using the PrimeGrowth Isolation kit (Wisent, Canada) and cultured for 21 days in presence of IL-1β (1ng/ml) and sLink N (0.5, 5, 50, 500 or 5000 ng/ml). Aggrecan and Col II were extracted with guanidine buffer and measured by Western blotting. Treatment of OA chondrocytes significantly increased the GAG and Col II synthesis. The EC50 dose-response of sLink N on GAG synthesis was 67 ± 41 nM [65 ± 40 ng/ml] and the GAG synthesis reached a maximum of 194 ± 30% with the highest dose above control. When chondrocytes were cultured in the presence of IL-1β, GAG synthesis was also elevated by sLink N above control. Treatment of OA cartilage explants with sLink N increased the content of aggrecan and Col II even in the presence of IL-1β. Our results suggest that sLink N is a growth factor supplement that can increase cartilage matrix protein synthesis, and a chondroprotective agent, by modulating the catabolic effects of IL-1β. sLink N is the first small-peptide to demonstrate potential in cartilage repair of OA joints

Objective. To investigate the histological and immunohistochemical characteristics of revised and failed MACI repair tissues. Methods. We examined the matrix profiles of repair biopsies taken from revised and clinically failed MACI cases by semi-quantitative immunohistochemical study using antibodies specific to aggrecan, collagens I, II, III, VI, and IX, Sox-9, Ki-67 and MMP-13. We also stiffness tested an intact clinically failed repair site. Results. Histologically, the majority of these biopsies (n=39) were hyaline-like (HLC) and fibrocartilage (FC) in both the revised (30% and 38% respectively) and failed (34% and 22% respectively) cases. Compositionally, more revised cases were positive for aggrecan, collagens VI and IX, and Ki67 compared to failed cases, but not quantitatively different (P>0.05). More HLC biopsies were positive for aggrecan and collagen II (compared to the FC group), with diffuse and often colocalized matrix distribution. The majority of HLC biopsies stained positive for Sox-9, whereas FC cases were negative. Most (75%) FC biopsies were positive for Ki-67, compared to the HLC group with 25%. MMP-13 was negative in all biopsies. Qualitatively, reduced collagen II and IX, and increased Ki67 production was noted in FC biopsies (P<0.05). An intact repair site showed FC with 30% greater stiffness in the inferior portion compared to the superior, with an associated proteoglycan content increase. Conclusions. Revised and failed biopsies display predominantly fibrocartilage and hyaline-like cartilage and are histologically dissimilar to healthy cartilage, but do not differ in composition. Hyaline-like repairs show lower proliferation but improved matrix to fibrocartilage repairs. Our study furthers knowledge into failed and revised cartilage repair by MACI

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating disease characterised by degradation of articular cartilage and subchondral bone remodeling. Current therapies for early or midstage disease do not regenerate articular cartilage, or fail to integrate the repair tissue with host tissue, and therefore there is great interest in developing biological approaches to cartilage repair. We have shown previously that platelet-rich plasma (PRP) can enhance cartilage tissue formation. PRP is obtained from a patient's own blood, and is an autologous source of many growth factors and other molecules which may aid in healing. This raised the question as to whether PRP could enhance cartilage integration. We hypothesise that PRP will enhance integration of bioengineered cartilage with native cartilage. Chondrocytes were isolated from bovine metacarpal-phalangeal joints, seeded on a porous bone substitute (calcium polyphosphate) and grown in the presence of FBS to form an in vitro model of osteochondral-like tissue. After 7 days, the biphasic constructs were soaked in PRP for 30 minutes prior to implantation into the core of a ring-shaped biphasic explant of native bovine cartilage and bone. Controls were not soaked in PRP. The resulting implant-explant construct was cultured in a stirring bioreactor in serum free conditions for 2 weeks. The integration zone was visualised histologically. A push-out test was performed to assess the strength of integration. Matrix accumulation at the zone of integration was assessed biochemically and the gene expression of the cells in this region was assessed by RT-PCR. Significance (p<0.05) was assessed by a student's t-test or one-way ANOVA with tukey's post hoc. PRP soaked bioengineered implants, integrated with the host tissue in 73% of samples, whereas control bioengineered implants only integrated in 19% of samples based on macroscopic evaluation (p<0.05). The integration strength, as determined by the normalised maximum force to failure, was significantly increased in the PRP soaked implant group compared to controls (219 +/− 35.4 kPa and 72.0 +/− 28.5 kPa, respectively, p<0.05). This correlated with an increase in glycosaminoglycan and collagen accumulation in the region of integration in the PRP treated implant group, compared to untreated controls after 2 weeks (p<0.05). Immunohistochemical studies revealed that the integration zone was rich in collagen type II and aggrecan. The cells at the zone of integration in the PRP soaked group had a 2.5 fold increase in aggrecan gene expression (p=0.05) and a 3.5 fold increase in matrix metalloproteinase 13 expression (p<0.05) compared to controls. PRP soaked bio-engineered cartilage implants showed improved integration with native cartilage compared to non-treated implants, perhaps due to the increased matrix accumulation and remodeling at the interface. Further evaluation is required to determine if PRP improves integration in vivo

The superficial zone (SFZ) of articular cartilage has unique structural and biomechanical features, and is important for joint long-term function. Previous studies have shown that TGF-β/Alk5 signaling upregulating PRG4 expression maintains articular cartilage homeostasis. However, the exact role and molecular mechanism of TGF-β signaling in SFZ of articular cartilage homeostasis are still lacking. In this study, a combination of in vitro and in vivo approaches were used to elucidate the role of Alk5 signaling in maintaining the SFZ of articular cartilage and preventing osteoarthritis initiation. Mice with inducible cartilage SFZ-specific deletion of Alk5 were generated to assess the role of Alk5 in OA development. Alterations in cartilage structure were evaluated histologically. The chondrocyte apoptosis and cell cycle were detected by TUNEL and Edu staining, respectively. Isolation, culture and treatment of SFZ cells, the expressions of genes associated with articular cartilage homeostasis and TGF-β signaling were analyzed by qRT-PCR. The effects of TGF-β/Alk5 signaling on proliferation and differentiation of SFZ cells were explored by cells count and alcian blue staining. In addition, SFZ cells isolated from C57 mice were cultured in presence of TGF-β1 or SB505124 for 7 days and transplanted subcutaneously in athymic mice. Postnatal cartilage SFZ-specific deletion of Alk5 induced an OA-like phenotype with degradation of articular cartilage, synovial hyperplasia as well as enhanced chondrocyte apoptosis, overproduction of catabolic factors, and decreased expressions of anabolic factors in chondrocytes. qRT-PCR and IHC results confirmed that Alk5 gene was effectively deleted in articular cartilage SFZ cells. Next, the PRG4-positive cells in articular cartilage SFZ were significantly decreased in Alk5 cKO mice compared with those in Cre-negative control mice. The mRNA expression of Aggrecan and Col2 were decreased, meanwhile, expression of Mmp13 and Adamts5 were significantly increased in articular cartilage SFZ cells of Alk5 cKO mice. In addition, Edu and TUNEL staining results revealed that slow-cell cycle cell number and increase the apoptosis positive cell in articular cartilage SFZ of Alk5 cKO mice compared with Cre-negative mice, respectively. Furthermore, all groups of SFZ cells formed ectopic solid tissue masses 1 week after transplantation. Histological examination revealed that the TGF-β1-pretreated tissues was composed of small and round cells and was positive for alcian blue staining, while the SB505124-pretreated tissue contained more hypertrophic cells though it did stain with alcian blue. TGF-β/alk5 signaling is an essential regulator of the superficial layer of articular cartilage by maintaining chondrocyte number, its differentiation properties, and lubrication function. Furthermore, it plays a critical role in protecting cartilage from OA initiation

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a debilitating disease and the most common joint disorder worldwide. Although the development of OA is considered multifactorial, the mechanisms underlying its initiation and progression remain unclear. A prominent feature in OA is cartilage degradation typified by the progressive loss of extracellular matrix components - aggrecan and type II collagen (Col II). Cartilage homeostasis is maintained by the anabolic and catabolic activities of chondrocytes. Prolonged exposure to stressors such as mechanical loading and inflammatory cytokines can alter the phonotype of chondrocytes favoring cartilage catabolism, and occurs through decreased matrix protein synthesis and upregulation of catabolic enzymes such as aggrecanases (ADAMTS-) 4 and 5 and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). More recently, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response has been implicated in OA. The ER-stress response protects the cell from misfolded proteins however, excessive activation of this system can lead to chondrocyte apoptosis. Acute exposure of chondrocytes to IL-1β has been demonstrated to upregulate ER-stress markers (GADD153 and GRP78), however, it is unclear whether the ER-stress response plays a role on chronic IL-1β exposure. The purpose of this study was to determine whether modulating the ER stress response with tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) in human OA chondrocytes during prolonged IL-1β exposure can alter its catabolic effects. Articular cartilage was isolated from donors undergoing total hip or knee replacement. Chondrocytes were recovered from the cartilage of each femoral head or knee by sequential digestion with Pronase followed by Collagenase, and expanded in DMEM-low glucose supplemented with 10% FBS. Chondrocytes were expanded in flasks for one passage before being prepared for micropellet culture. Chondrocyte pellets were cultured in regular growth medium (Control), medium supplemented with IL-1β [10 ng/mL], TUDCA [100 uM] or IL-1β + TUDCA for 12 days. Medium was replaced every three days. Cartilage explants were prepared from the donors undergoing knee replacement, and included cartilage with the cortical bone approximately 1 cm2 in dimension. Explants were cultured in the above mentioned media, however, the incubation period was extended to 21 days. RNA was extracted using Geneaid RNA Mini Kit for Tissue followed by cDNA synthesis. QPCR was performed using Cyber Green mastermix and primers for the following genes: ACAN (aggreacan), COL1A1, COL2A1, COL10A1, ADAMTS-4, ADAMTS-5, MMP-3, and MMP-13, on an ABI 7500 fast qPCR system. Although IL-1β did not significantly decrease the expression of matrix proteins, it did increase the expression of ADAMTS-4, −5, and MMP3 and −13 when compared to controls (Kruskal-Wallis, p < 0 .05, n=3). TUDCA treatment alone did not significantly increase the expression of catabolic enzymes but it did increase the expression of collagen type II. When IL-1β was coincubated with TUDCA, the expression of ADAMTS-4, ADAMTS-5, and MMP-13 significantly decreased by ∼40-fold, ∼10-fold, and ∼3-fold, respectfully. We provide evidence that the catabolic activities of IL-1β on human cartilage can be abrogated through modulation of the ER stress response

The zonal organization of articular cartilage is crucial in providing the tissue with mechanical properties to withstand compression and shearing force. Current treatments available for articular cartilage injury are not able to restore the hierarchically organized architecture of the tissue. Implantation of zonal chondrocyte as a multilayer tissue construct could overcome the limitation of current treatments. However, it is impeded by the lack of efficient zonal chondrocyte isolation protocol and dedifferentiation of chondrocytes during expansion on tissue culture plate (TCP). This study aims to develop a protocol to produce an adequate number of high-quality zonal chondrocytes for clinical application via size-based zonal chondrocyte separation using inertial spiral microchannel device and expansion under dynamic microcarrier culture. Full thickness (FT) chondrocytes isolated from porcine femoral condyle cartilage were subjected to two serial of size-based sorting into three subpopulations of different cell sizes, namely small (S1), medium (S2), and large (S3) chondrocytes. Zonal phenotype of the three subpopulations was characterised. To verify the benefit of stratified zonal chondrocyte implantation in the articular cartilage regeneration, a bilayer hydrogel construct composed of S1 chondrocytes overlaying a mixture of S2 and S3 (S2S3) chondrocytes was delivered to the rat osteochondral defect model. For chondrocyte expansion, two dynamic microcarrier cultures, sort-before-expansion and sort-after-expansion, which involved expansion after or before zonal cells sorting, were studied to identify the best sort-expansion strategy. Size-sorted zonal chondrocytes showed zone-specific characteristics in qRT-PCR with a high level of PRG4 expression in S1 and high level of aggrecan, Type II and IX collagen expression in S2 and S3. Cartilage reformation capability of sorted zonal chondrocytes in three-dimensional fibrin hydrogel showed a similar trend in qRT-PCR, histology, extracellular matrix protein quantification and mechanical compression test, indicating the zonal characteristics of S1, S2 and S3 as superficial (SZ), middle (MZ) and deep (DZ) zone chondrocytes, respectively. Implantation of bilayered zonal chondrocytes resulted in better cartilage tissue regeneration in a rat osteochondral defect model than FT control group, with predominantly Type II hyaline cartilage tissue and significantly lower Type I collagen. Dynamic microcarrier expansion of sorted zonal chondrocytes was able to retain the zonal cell size difference that correlate to zonal phenotype, while maintaining the rounded chondrocyte morphology and F-actin distribution similar to that in mature articular cartilage. With the better retention of zonal cell size and zonal phenotype relation on microcarrier, zonal cells separation was achievable in the sort-after-expansion strategy with cells expanded on microcarrier, in comparison to cells expanded on TCP. Inertial spiral microchannel device provides a label-free and high throughput method to separate zonal chondrocytes based on cell size. Stratified implantation of zonal chondrocytes has the potential to improve articular cartilage regeneration. Dynamic microcarrier culture allows for size-based zonal chondrocyte separation to be performed on expanded chondrocytes, thus overcoming the challenge of limited tissue availability from the patients. Our novel zonal chondrocyte isolation and expansion protocol provide a translatable strategy for stratified zonal chondrocyte implantation that could improve articular cartilage regeneration of critical size defects

R Appleyard, Murray Maxwell Biomechanics Lab, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney. The fundamental mechanisms that underlie tendon breakdown are ill understood. There is an emerging hypothesis that altered mechanical strain modulates the metabolism and/or phenotype of tenocytes, disrupting the balance of matrix synthesis and degradation, and that rupture then occurs through an abnormal tendon matrix. The critically regulated genes have not yet been determined. We have developed sheep model in sheep where both stress-deprived and over-stressed areas can be examined in the one tendon, to evaluate the pathological and molecular changes over time. We have also used ‘wild type’ and genetically modified mice to determine the role of specific enzymes and proteoglycans in tendon degeneration. Stress-deprived and over-stressed regions showed classical changes of increased cellularity and vascularity, rounded tenocytes and interfascicular matrix infiltration. These structural changes resolved for up to one year after injury. Resolution was more rapid in over-stressed regions. Irrespective of the initiating stress, proteoglycan staining and chondroid metaplasia increased in tendon with time. There were distinct molecular and temporal differences between regions, which are reviewed here. While tendon degeneration has traditionally been regarded as a single field of change, our studies show that at a molecular level, the injured tendon may be regarded as a number of distinct regions—overloaded and underloaded, adjacent to bone or adjacent to muscle. Each region manifests distinct molecular changes, driven by relevant gene expression. While collagen metabolism in pathological tendon has received much attention, accumulation of proteoglycan is also consistently induced by altered mechanical loading. We suggest that ADAMTS enzymes, which cleave aggrecan, versican and small proteoglycans, may play a significant role in tendon homeostasis and pathology. Regulating proteoglycan turnover may represent a novel target for treating tendon degeneration. We have initiated studies using mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), not to directly augment healing but to modify the molecular pathology in tendon resulting from altered loading. Preliminary data indicates that injection of MSC into an acute tendon defect significantly abrogates the increase in expression of aggrecan and collagen degrading metalloproteinases in the adjacent over-stressed tendon. This may decrease the resultant degeneration. The effects of MSC in treating tendon degeneration are reviewed here, as are the possible benefits of radiofrequency microtenotomy

INTRODUCTION. Several reports suggest that low-intensity pulsed ultrasound stimulation (LIPUS) facilitates chondrogenesis. 1). Recently it has been suggested that LIPUS may be transmitted via Integrin: a protein which mediates cellular attachment between cells and extracellular matrix. 2). In this study, the Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) amino acid sequence, which is a ligand of Integrin, was induced to the fibroin substrates by either gene transfer or physical mixing, and the variation of chndrocyte response to LIPUS was evaluated. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. Three kinds of culture dishes coated with three diffrent fibroin aqueous solutions were prepared: 1 wild-type, 2 transgenic and 3 mixed. The wild-type aqueous solution was prepared from Bombyx mori silkworm cocoons. The transgenic aqueous solution was prepared from Bombyx mori silkworm cocoons in which RGD was interfused in the fibroin light chain. 3). The mixed aqueous solution was prepared simply by blending RGD peptides with the wild-type fibroin aqueous solution. Chondrocytes were asepically harvested from the joints of 4-week-old Japanese white rabbits and then subcultured on T-flasks and seeded at 2.0 × 10. 5. cells/dish. LIPUS stimulation, with spatial and temporal average intensity of 30 mW/cm. 2. and a frequency of 1.71 MHz with a 200 ms tone burst repeated at 1.0 kHz, was applied to the chondrocytes at 12, 36, 60 hours and administered for 20 minutes each time. GAG production and the number of chondrocytes were measured by the Dimethylmethylene blue (DMMB) method. 4). and the LDH method. 5). , respectively. Extracted mRNA from the chondrocytes was analyzed by using the Syber Green method, where the primers were designed for glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) as the house-keeping gene, aggrecan and Sox 9. This data was analyzed using the two-sided Student's t-test. RESULTS and DISCUSSION. In the transgenic group, the number of chondrocytes and GAG production were increased by the LIPUS stimulation in 1 day of culture (Fig. 1,2), and the mRNA expression levels of agrrecan (Fig. 3) and Sox 9 were increased in 2 days of culture. However the mRNA expression level of aggrecan was decreased after 3 days of culture. These LIPUS-derived changes were not found in the wild-type and mixed groups. We previously reported that the adhesive force between chondrocytes and RGD transgenic fibroin surfaces was higher than that for mixed fibroin, suggesting that adhesive force is translated via RGD which bonds covalently to the fibroin proteins for the transgenic group. The present results suggest that the early biological adhesion via RGD on the transgenic fibroin is sensitive to LIPUS

Purpose. Disc degeneration is known to occur early in adult life, but at present there is no medical treatment to reverse or even retard the problem. Development of medical treatments is complicated by the lack of a validated long term organ culture model in which therapeutic candidates can be studied. The objective of this study was to optimize and validate an organ culture system for intact human intervertebral disc (IVD), which could be used subsequently to determine whether synthetic peptide growth factors can stimulate disc cell metabolism and initiate a repair response. Method. Seventy lumbar IVDs, from 14 individuals, were isolated within 24 h after death. Discs were prepared for organ culture by removing bony endplates but retaining cartilaginous endplates (CEP). Discs were cultured with no external load applied. The effects of glucose and FBS concentrations were evaluated. Dulbeccos Modified Eagle Media (DMEM) was supplemented with glucose, 4.5g/L or 1g/L, referred to as high and low (physiological) glucose, and FBS, 5% or 1%, referred to as high and low FBS, respectively. After a four week culture period, samples were taken across the disc using a 4 mm biopsy punch. Cell viability was analyzed using a live/dead fluorescence assay (Live/Dead, Invitrogen) and visualized by confocal microscopy. CEP discs were also placed in long term culture for four months, and cell viability was assessed. Western bolt analysis for the G1 domain of aggrecan was also performed to assess the effect of nutritional state on disc catabolism. Results. Cell viability in CEP isolated discs was evaluated after four weeks and four months of organ culture under high and physiological nutritional state. Previous studies have shown that high glucose levels are needed to maintain cell viability in organ culture, but in our model 96–98% live cells were present throughout the disc independent of FBS and glucose levels and the duration of culture tested. Western blot probing for the G1 domain of aggrecan showed no difference with the change of nutritional state across all regions indicating that low nutritional state had no detrimental effect on disc metabolism. Conclusion. We have developed a novel technique for isolation and culturing of intact IVDs. The described CEP system maintained sufficient nutrient supply and high cell survival in all regions of the disc for up to four months of culture also under physiological culturing condition. As the CEP system maintains high cell viability in long term cultures, it is a suitable model in which the regenerative effect of various bioactive peptides can be studied. The availability of an intact disc organ culture system has considerable advantage over the culture of isolated disc cells, as it maintains the cells in their unique microenvironment, so making any response to catabolic or anabolic agents more physiologically relevant

Purpose. Disc degeneration is known to occur early in adult life, but at present there is no medical treatment to reverse or even retard the problem. Development of medical treatments is complicated by the lack of a validated long term organ culture model in which therapeutic candidates can be studied. The objective of this study was to optimize and validate an organ culture system for intact human intervertebral disc (IVD), which could be used subsequently to determine whether synthetic peptide growth factors can stimulate disc cell metabolism and initiate a repair response. Method. Seventy lumbar IVDs, from 14 individuals, were isolated within 24 h after death. Discs were prepared for organ culture by removing bony endplates but retaining cartilaginous endplates (CEP). Discs were cultured with no external load applied. The effects of glucose and FBS concentrations were evaluated. Dulbeccos Modified Eagle Media (DMEM) was supplemented with glucose, 4.5g/L or 1g/L, referred to as high and low (physiological) glucose, and FBS, 5% or 1%, referred to as high and low FBS, respectively. After a four week culture period, samples were taken across the disc using a 4 mm biopsy punch. Cell viability was analyzed using a live/dead fluorescence assay (Live/Dead, Invitrogen) and visualized by confocal microscopy. CEP discs were also placed in long term culture for four months, and cell viability was assessed. Western bolt analysis for the G1 domain of aggrecan was also performed to assess the effect of nutritional state on disc catabolism. Results. Cell viability in CEP isolated discs was evaluated after four weeks and four months of organ culture under high and physiological nutritional state. Previous studies have shown that high glucose levels are needed to maintain cell viability in organ culture, but in our model 96–98% live cells were present throughout the disc independent of FBS and glucose levels and the duration of culture tested. Western blot probing for the G1 domain of aggrecan showed no difference with the change of nutritional state across all regions indicating that low nutritional state had no detrimental effect on disc metabolism. Conclusion. We have developed a novel technique for isolation and culturing of intact IVDs. The described CEP system maintained sufficient nutrient supply and high cell survival in all regions of the disc for up to four months of culture also under physiological culturing condition. As the CEP system maintains high cell viability in long term cultures, it is a suitable model in which the regenerative effect of various bioactive peptides can be studied. The availability of an intact disc organ culture system has considerable advantage over the culture of isolated disc cells, as it maintains the cells in their unique microenvironment, so making any response to catabolic or anabolic agents more physiologically relevant

Introduction. Some patients complain ingrown pain or discomfort after implanting Co-Cr conventional endprosthesis of the hip. Some of this complaint may be attributable for effect on cartilage metabolism. It have been reported that ceramic is bioinert for biological tissue. On the other hand, metal including cobalt-chrome (Co-Cr) have some detrimental effect on biological tissue. However, there is no report concerning acetabular cartilage metabolism after hip endprosthesis implantation. In the present study, we hypothesized that ceramic head have small detrimental effect on cartilage cell metabolism. Specific aim of the study is to compare the protein level of inflammation related cytokines, amount of hyaluronic acid (HA) in culture media, and cartilage mRNA expression in organ culture model of hip end prosthesis implanted using ceramic head and Co-Cr head. Materials and Methods. Six acetabulum of 3 matured crossbred pig (average weight: 36 +/− 3.6kg) was retrieved. Animal experiment was performed under the rules of ethical committee of animal experiment. Average diameter of pig acetabulum was 26.3 +/− 0.6 mm. Just after sacrifice, mechanical loading using Instron testing machine with 26mm diameter of Co-Cr in right hip and Ceramic heads in left hip was performed in culture media. Ten thousand cycles of cyclic compression and rotation load (1.5kN to 0.15kN of compression and 12 degrees of rotation) to cartilage was applied at 1Hz (Figure 1). Culture media was analyzed for protein levels of inflammation related cytokines and amount of HA. Relative quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from acetabular cartilage was performed as previously reported using specific primer sets for type II collagen, aggrecan, TNF-alpha, Interleukine-1 and 6, and MMP-1, 3, 13. Results. IL-1 beta protein level from culture media was significantly higher in Co-Cr than that in Ceramic (155+/−25.2 pg/ml vs. 86.3+/−9.6 pg/ml respectively). MMP-3 protein level had tendency to be higher in culture media from Co-Cr than that from Ceramic (16.3+/−10.6 ng/ml vs. 10.0+/−0.1 ng/ml respectively, p<0.05), however there was no significant difference. There were no significant differences of protein levels from culture media in MMP-1, IL-1a, and TNF between two groups. Amount of HA from culture media of Co-Cr group was significantly higher than that from Ceramic group (337+/−38.4 mg/ml versus 257+/−11.1 mg/ml respectively, p<0.05). Type II collagen mRNA expression was 3 times higher in Ceramic group than that in Co-Cr group. IL-1 beta mRNA expression was 4 times higher in Co-Cr group than that in Ceramic group. Other gene expression had no significant differences. Discussion. The present study showed that Co-Cr affects cartilage metabolism than Ceramic. Co-Cr group had higher protein level and mRNA expression of inflammation related cytokine, IL-1 beta, and higher HA. Concerning the mRNA expression from cartilage, type II collagen was significantly higher in Ceramic group. It has been reported that HA level is high in osteoarthritic joint. These report and our results showed that ceramic head have small detrimental effect on cartilage cell metabolism. There are limitations of the present study. Firstly, the sample size is small. Secondly, we did not evaluate synovial membrane metabolism

Purpose. Traumatic articular cartilage (AC) defects are common in young adults and frequently progresses to osteoarthritis. Matrix-Induced Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation (MACI) is a recent advancement in cartilage resurfacing techniques and is a variant of ACI, which is considered by some surgeons to be the gold standard in AC regeneration. MACI involves embedding cultured chondrocytes into a scaffold that is then surgically implanted into an AC defect. Unfortunately, chondrocytes cultured in a normoxic environment (conventional technique) tend to de-differentiate resulting in decreased collagen II and increased collagen I producing in a fibrocartilagous repair tissue that is biomechanically inferior to AC and incapable of withstanding physiologic loads over prolonged periods. The optimum conditions for maintenance of chondrocyte phenotype remain elusive. Normal oxygen tension within AC is <7%. We hypothesized that hypoxic conditions would induce gene expression and matrix production that more closely characterizes normal articular chondrocytes than that achieved under normoxic conditions when chondrocytes are cultured in a collagen scaffold. Method. Chondrocytes were isolated from Outerbridge grade 0 and 1 AC from four patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty and embedded within 216 bovine collagen I scaffolds. Scaffolds were incubated in hypoxic (3% O2) or normoxic (21% O2) conditions for 1hr, 21hr and 14 days. Gene expression was determined using Q-rt-PCR for col I/II/X, COMP, SOX9, aggrecan and B actin. Matrix production was determined using glycosaminoglycan (GAG) content relative to cell count determined by DNA quantification. Cell viability and location within the matrix was determined by Live/Dead assay and confocal microscopy. Statistical analysis was performed using a two-tailed T-test. Results. Chondrocytes cultured under hypoxic conditions showed an upregulation of all matrix related genes compared to normoxic conditions noted most markedly in col II, COMP and SOX9 expression. There were similar numbers of chondrocytes between hypoxic and normoxic groups (P=0.68) but the chondrocytes in the hypoxic group produced more GAG per cell (P= 0.052). Viable cells were seen throughout the matrix in both groups. Conclusion. Important matrix related genes (col II, COMP, SOX9) were most significantly upregulated in hypoxic conditions compared to normoxic conditions. This was supported by an increase in GAG production per cell in hypoxic conditions. The results indicate that hypoxia induces an upregulation in the production of extracellular matrix components typical of AC with only modest increases in col I (possibly related to the col I based scaffold used in this experiment). These results indicate that hypoxic conditions are important for the maintenance of chondrocyte phenotype even when the cells are cultured in a 3D environment. In conclusion, hypoxic culture conditions should be used to help maintain chondrocyte phenotype even when culturing these cells in a 3D scaffold

Purpose. The biomechanical role of the meniscus in the knee joint is a function of its extracellular matrix which consists of type I collagen throughout, type II collagen in the inner meniscus region and glycosaminoglynated (GAG) proteins of which aggrecan is the most prevaleet. Meniscus reparative capacity is limited, particularly when a defect is located in the inner avascular portion, and menisectomy predisposes the joint to osteoarthritis. Using meniscus cells in tissue engineering strategies has been advocated to generate functional meniscus substitutes. However, meniscus cells, like chondrocytes of cartilage, lose their matrix-forming phenotype during culture expansion. Co-culture of chondrocytes with stem cells has been shown to result in enhanced matrix formation. We hypothesized that meniscus cells in co-culture with stem cells will result in increased matrix formation. Method. Tissue specimens were obtained after approval of the local ethical committee and informed consent. Menisci were obtained from 3 patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty; (53–84; mean age 66.6). Meniscus cells were isolated after digestion of menisci with collagenase II. Isolated meniscus cells were plated for 24–48 hr before use. Bone marrow aspirates were obtained from the iliac crest of 3 donors: 1 female (46) and 2 males (15 and 21) undergoing routine orthopaedic procedures. Plastic adherent bone marrow stromal cell populations were isolated and expanded under normal oxygen tension of 21%O2 in a-MEM growth media plus FGF-2 until passage 2. Cells were mixed at a variety of meniscus cells (Men): BMSC ratio including 5/95, 10/90 and 25/75, respectively. Mixed cells were centrifuged to form spherical pellets followed by culture in a defined serum free chondrogenic differentiation medium. Control groups were pure Men and pure BMSCs. Total cell number per pellet was 25×104. Pellets were cultured for 3 weeks under normal oxygen tension. Thereafter, pellets were processed: biochemically for GAG and DNA content, and histologically for Safranin-O staining of sulphated GAG and immunohistochemical analyses for collagen types I and II. Analysis was performed on a minimum of 2 independent pellets. Results. Relative to pure cell control pellets, co-cultured cell pellets of expanded human BMSCs and meniscus cells had more GAG matrix per DNA content. The amplitude of GAG enhancement in all co-cultures varied with donor and with the Men:BMSC ratio. However, the mean GAG enhancement was 1.8–6 fold. The GAG contents of pellets correlated with Safranin-O staining. Positive staining for collagens types I and II was increased in co-cultured cell pellets. Conclusion. Co-seeding of meniscus cells and stem cells on a suitable scaffold may aid the generation of functional grafts with improved biomechanical properties relative to those generated via expanded meniscus cells alone or stem cells alone

Purpose. Bone marrow multi-potent stromal cells represent a heterogenous source of cells with great promise in joint cartilage regenerative medicine. However, due to their low numbers upon harvesting, MSCs need to be expanded without compromising their capacity to form chondrocytes (cartilage cells). To date there is no consensus on how to expand MSCs in order to maximize their potential for cartilage repair and nor are there any specific cell signatures of MSCs with chondrogenic propensity. Emerging evidence suggest that marrow stem cells exist in a hypoxic microenvironment. On this basis and in addition to cartilages natural existence in hypoxic environment (1–7% O2), we hypothesized that MSC expansion under hypoxia will result in the enrichment of MSCs with predilection to chondrocytes compared to expansion under the conventional culture conditions of 21% O2. Method. Bone marrow was harvested from the iliac crest of 4 donors (mean age 43.5 years) post informed consent and local ethical approval. Fifteen million mono-nucleated (MNCs) cells were seeded into T150cm2 culture flasks in the presence of alpha MEM plus 10% FBS and 5 ng/ml FGF2. Similarly, 0.25 million MNCs were seeded in 10cm petri dishes for colony forming unit-fibroblastic (CFU-f) assay. The seeded flasks and petri dishes were cultured under normoxia (21% O2) and hypoxia (3% O2). Petri dished cells were cultured for 14 days and those in flasks were cultured until passage 2 (P2). Developed cell colonies per dish were revealed after crystal violet staining. Colony counts and diameters were recorded. P2 cells were treated with a panel of antibodies for cell surface marker analysis by fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS) flow cytometry. P2 cell pellets were formed and induced towards cartilage in a defined serum free medium containing TGFβ1. Pellets were cultured for 3 weeks under normoxia and were then processed for histological, biochemical and gene expression analyses. Results. The mean number of cell colonies was 1.25-fold higher after hypoxia culture relative to normoxia. There were no differences in colony diameters. A panel of common protein signatures (CD29, CD90, CD105 and CD151) for stem cells declined in expression after expansion in hypoxia. However, other signatures (CD13, CD34 and CD44) expression level increased under hypoxia, whilst CD73 expression was unchanged. Pellets from hypoxia-expanded MSCs showed on average a 1.4-fold increase in chondrogenic capacity as judged by glycosaminoglycan (GAG) matrix per DNA content relative to normoxia pellets. The gene expression of collagen II, SOX9, aggrecan and matrillin-3 increased by 1.2-, 2-, 1.3- and 1.5-fold, respectively, in pellets formed from hypoxia-expanded stem cells relative to their normoxia counterparts. Conclusion. Expansion of stem cells under hypoxia potentiates their capacity to form cartilage with improved cartilage properties. However, there is a need for signatures to identify stem cells with propensity to form cartilage

Objectives

Salubrinal is a synthetic agent that elevates phosphorylation of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2α) and alleviates stress to the endoplasmic reticulum. Previously, we reported that in chondrocytes, Salubrinal attenuates expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP13) through downregulating nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB) signalling. We herein examine whether Salubrinal prevents the degradation of articular cartilage in a mouse model of osteoarthritis (OA).