Introduction and Objective. Nonunion is incomplete healing of fracture and fracture that lacks potential to heal without further intervention. Nonunion commonly presents with persistent pain, swelling, or instability. Those symptoms affect patient quality of life. It is known that using low intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) for fresh fractures promotes healing. However, effectiveness of LIPUS for nonunion is still controversial. If LIPUS is prove to be effective for healing nonunion, it can potentially provide an alternative to surgery. In addition, we can reduce costs by treating nonunion with LIPUS than performing revision surgery. Materials and Methods. The two authors carried out a systematic search of PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, and the Cochrane Library. Meta-analysis of healing rate in nonunion and delayed union patients who underwent LIPUS was conducted based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) instruction method using a random effects model. Results. The initial search identified 652 articles. Of these, 541 were excluded on the basis of the title because they were either a review paper or covered an unrelated topic. The abstracts of the remaining 111 articles were examined further. That review resulted in a sample of 12 articles. We performed a meta-analysis with a random effects model using Open Meta Analyst software. The result of pooled effect size of healing rate was 73.4% (95%CI: 65.3–81.6%). Due to the fact that nonunion lacks potential to heal without further intervention, we suggest that the therapeutic effect of 73.4% from LIPUS is sufficiently effective. As far as we know, there are no trials comparing the therapeutic effectiveness of surgery and LIPUS, so it cannot be said which is more advantageous. However, the healing rate of revision surgery was reported between 68–96%; therefore, our result is within that range. Thus, if surgery is difficult due to complications, we can recommend LIPUS. Conclusions. Meta-analysis of healing rate of nonunion treated by low-intensity pulsed ultrasound is 73.4%, which suggests sufficient therapeutic effectiveness. Furthermore, we can say that LIPUS may provide an alternative treatment for nonunion patients who cannot tolerate revision surgery due to complications

Objectives. To explore the therapeutic potential of combining bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) and hydroxyapatite (HA) granules to treat nonunion of the long bone. Methods. Ten patients with an atrophic nonunion of a long bone fracture were selectively divided into two groups. Five subjects in the treatment group were treated with the combination of 15 million autologous BM-MSCs, 5g/cm. 3. (HA) granules and internal fixation. Control subjects were treated with iliac crest autograft, 5g/cm. 3. HA granules and internal fixation. The outcomes measured were post-operative pain (visual analogue scale), level of functionality (LEFS and DASH), and radiograph assessment. Results. Post-operative pain evaluation showed no significant differences between the two groups. The treatment group demonstrated faster initial radiographic and functional improvements. Statistically significant differences in functional scores were present during the first (p = 0.002), second (p = 0.005) and third (p = 0.01) month. Both groups achieved similar outcomes by the end of one-year follow-up. No immunologic or neoplastic side effects were reported. Conclusions. All cases of nonunion of a long bone presented in this study were successfully treated using autologous BM-MSCs. The combination of autologous BM-MSCs and HA granules is a safe method for treating nonunion. Patients treated with BM-MSCs had faster initial radiographic and functional improvements. By the end of 12 months, both groups had similar outcomes. Cite this article: H.D. Ismail, P. Phedy, E. Kholinne, Y. P. Djaja, Y. Kusnadi, M. Merlina, N. D. Yulisa. Mesenchymal stem cell implantation in atrophic nonunion of the long bones: A translational study. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:287–293. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.57.2000587

Our aim was to develop a clinically relevant model of atrophic nonunion in the rat to test the hypothesis that the vessel density of atrophic nonunion reaches that of normal healing bone, but at a later time-point. Atrophic nonunion is usually attributed to impaired blood supply and is poorly understood. We determined the number of blood vessels at the site of an osteotomy using immunolocalisation techniques in both normally healing bones and in atrophic nonunion. At one week after operation there were significantly fewer blood vessels in the nonunion group than in the healing group. By eight weeks, the number in the atrophic nonunion group had reached the same level as that in the healing group. Our findings suggest that the number of blood vessels in atrophic nonunion reaches the same level as that in healing bone, but at a later time-point. Diminished vascularity within the first three weeks, but not at a later time-point, may prevent fractures from uniting

Osteomyelitis is an inflammatory condition accompanied by the destruction of bone and caused by an infecting microorganism. Open contaminated fractures can lead to the development of osteomyelitis of the fractured bone in 3-25% of cases, depending on fracture type, degree of soft-tissue injury, degree of microbial contamination, and whether systemic and/or local antimicrobial therapies have been administered. Untreated, infection will ultimately lead to non-union, chronic osteomyelitis, or amputation. We report a case series of 10 patients that presented with post-operative infected non-union of the distal femur with or without prior surgery. The cases were performed at Padmashree Dr. D. Y. Patil Hospital, Nerul, Navi Mumbai, India. All the patients’ consents were taken for the study which was carried out in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. The methodology involved patients undergoing a two-stage procedure in case of no prior implant or a three-stage procedure in case of a previous implant. Firstly, debridement and implant removal were done. The second was a definitive procedure in form of knee arthrodesis with ring fixator and finally followed by limb lengthening surgery. Arthrodesis was planned in view of infection, non-union, severe arthritic, subluxated knee, stiff knee, non-salvage knee joint, and financial constraints. After all the patients demonstrated wound healing in 3 months along with good radiographic osteogenesis at the knee arthrodesis site, limb lengthening surgeries by tibial osteotomy were done to overcome the limb length discrepancy. Distraction was started and followed up for 5 months. All 10 patients showed results with sound knee arthrodesis and good osteogenesis at the osteotomy site followed by achieving the limb length just 1-inch short from the normal side to achieve ground clearance while walking. Our case series is unique and distinctive as it shows that when patients with infected nonunion of distal femur come with the stiff and non-salvage knee with severe arthritic changes and financial constraints, we should consider knee arthrodesis with Ilizarov ring fixator followed by limb lengthening surgery

INTRODUCTION. In the treatment of nonunions, and other complications of bone repair, an attractive alternative to bone autografts would be the use of a combination of autologous mesenchymal progenitors cells (MSCs), biomaterials and growth factors. Our goal was to determine the therapeutic potential and contribution to the repair process of different sources of mesenchymal stem cells for the treatment of nonunions. METHODS. The right femur of Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats was stabilized with an aluminum plate (20 mm long, 4 mm wide, 2 mm thick) and four screws (1.5 mm diameter, 8 mm long). A diaphyseal critical size defect was performed (5 mm). Six groups (n=6–8 animals each) were created. A nonunion group (Control group, empty defect); LBA group, live bone allograft; BMP2 group, rhBMP-2 (2 μg) in collagen sponge; PCL group, polycaprolactone scaffold; PMSCs group, PCL scaffold loaded with 5×10. 6. periosteum-derived MSCs; and BMSCs group, PCL scaffold loaded with 5×10. 6. bone marrow-derived MSCs. For cell tracking purposes, LBA and MSCs were derived from SD-GFP transgenic rats. The repair process was followed up by x-rays up to sacrifice, week 10. After sacrifice, femurs were analyzed by micro computed tomography (μCT), histology and immunohistochemistry. For multiple comparisons one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett”s test for single comparisons was used. Statistical significance was established for p<0.05. RESULTS. Control group did not show healing during follow up or by μCT and histological analysis. Treatment groups BLA and BMP2 showed full healing by week 10 (LBA, 6 out of 6 animals; BMP2, 4 out of 6 animals). The repair callus was quantified by mCT, Control group showed limited formation of bone (11.47±2.01 mm. 3. ) while both LBA and BMP2 groups showed increased bone formation by week 10 when compared with control group (LBA, 35.36±2.24 mm. 3. , p=0.0022; BMP2, 33.32±1.84 mm. 3. , p=0.0022). Histological and μCT analysis confirmed the experimental nonunion model. In PCL treated groups a low number of animals showed radiographic healing: PCL group 1 out of 8 animals; PMSCs group, 2 out of 6 animals; BMSCs group, 0 out of 6 animals. Interestingly, quantification of the repaired callus showed that only PMSCs group produced a significant volume of bone when compared with the Control group (PMSCs, 24.97±6.03 mm. 3. , p=0.0411). PCL and BMSCs groups do not produced significant amount of bone in the repair callus (PCL, 19.00±4.25 mm. 3. , p=0.3095; BMSCs, 12.88±2.38 mm. 3. , p=0.9372). Healing was confirmed by histology and μCT analysis. Finally, the engraftment of transplanted cells was analysed by immunohistochemistry (anti-GFP antibody). Of the three groups receiving cells only the LBA group showed positive signal for GFP at week 10-post surgery. CONCLUSIONS. In conclusion, periosteum-derived progenitor cells are suitable for mimetic autograft design although integration is not yet achieved

Bone regeneration is pivotal for the healing of fractures. In case this process is disturbed a non-union can occur. This can be induced by environmental factors such as smoking, overloading etc. Co-morbidities such as diabetes, osteoporosis etc. may be more intrinsic factors besides other disturbances in the process. Those pathways negatively influence the bone regeneration process. Several intrinsic signal transduction pathways (WNT, BMP etc.) can be affected. Furthermore, on the transcriptional level, important mRNA expression can be obstructed by deregulated miRNA levels. For instance, several miRNAs have been shown to be upregulated during osteoporotic fractures. They are detrimental for osteogenesis as they block bone formation and accelerate bone resorption. Modulating those miRNAs may revert the physiological homeostasis. Indeed, physiological fracture healing has a typical miRNA signature. Besides using molecular pathways for possible treatment of non-union fractures, providing osteogenic cells is another solution. In 5 clinical cases with non-union fractures with defects larger than 10 cm, successful administration of a 3D printed PCL-TCP scaffold with autologous bone marrow aspirate concentrate and a modulator of the pathogenetic pathway has been achieved. All patients recovered well and showed a complete union of their fractures within one year after start of the regenerative treatment.

Thus, non-union fractures are a diverse entity. Nevertheless, there seem to be common pathogenetic disturbances. Those can be counteracted at several levels from molecular to cell. Compositions of those may be the best option for future therapies. They can also be used in a more personalized fashion in case more specific measurements such as miRNA signature and stem cell activity are applied.

The re-establishment of vascularity is an early event in fracture healing; upregulation of angiogenesis may therefore promote the formation of bone. We have investigated the capacity of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) to stimulate the formation of bone in an experimental atrophic nonunion model. Three groups of eight rabbits underwent a standard nonunion operation. This was followed by interfragmentary deposition of 100 μg VEGF, carrier alone or autograft. After seven weeks, torsional failure tests and callus size confirmed that VEGF-treated osteotomies had united whereas the carrier-treated osteotomies failed to unite. The biomechanical properties of the groups treated with VEGF and autograft were identical. There was no difference in bone blood flow. We considered that VEGF stimulated the formation of competent bone in an environment deprived of its normal vascularisation and osteoprogenitor cell supply. It could be used to enhance the healing of fractures predisposed to nonunion

Treatment of bone infection often includes a burdensome two-stage revision. After debridement, contaminated implants are removed and replaced with a non-absorbable cement spacer loaded with antibiotics. Weeks later, the spacer is exchanged with a bone graft aiding bone healing. However, even with this two-stage approach infection persists. In this study, we investigated whether a novel 3D-printed, antibiotic-loaded, osteoinductive calcium phosphate scaffold (CPS) is effective in single-stage revision of an infected non-union with segmental bone loss in rabbits.

A 5 mm defect was created in the radius of female New Zealand White rabbits. The bone fragment was replaced, stabilized with cerclage wire and inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA). After 4 weeks, the infected bone fragment was removed, the site debrided and a spacer implanted. Depending on group allocation, rabbits received: 1) PMMA spacer with gentamycin; 2) CPS loaded with rifampin and vancomycin and 3) Non-loaded CPS. These groups received systemic cefazolin for 4 weeks after revision. Group 4 received a loaded CPS without any adjunctive systemic therapy (n=12 group1-3, n=11 group 4). All animals were euthanized 8 weeks after revision and assessed by quantitative bacteriology or histology. Covariance analysis (ANCOVA) and multiple regression were performed.

All animals were culture positive at revision surgery. Half of the animals in all groups had eliminated the infection by end of study. In a historical control group with empty defect and no systemic antibiotic treatment, all animals were infected at euthanasia. There was no significant difference in CFU counts between groups at euthanasia.

Our results show that treating an osteomyelitis with segmental bone loss either with CPS or PMMA has a similar cure rate of infection. However, by not requiring a second surgery, the use of CPS may offer advantages over non-resorbable equivalents such as PMMA.

The optimal treatment strategy for post-traumatic long bone non-unions is subject of an ongoing discussion. At the Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC+) the induced membrane technique is used to treat post-traumatic long bone non-unions. This technique uses a multimodal treatment algorithm involving bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC), the reamer-irrigator-aspirator (RIA) and P-15 bioactive peptide (iFactor, Cerapedics). Bioactive glass (S53P4 BAG, Bonalive) is added when infection is suspected. This study aims to objectify the effect of this treatment algorithm on the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of patients with post-traumatic long bone non-unions. We hypothesized that HRQoL would improve after treatment.

From January 2020 to March 2023, consecutive patients who were referred to a multidisciplinary (trauma, orthopaedic and plastic surgery) non-union clinic at the MUMC+, The Netherlands, were evaluated using the Non-Union Scoring System (NUSS). The EQ-5D-5L questionnaire and the Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS) were employed to obtain HRQoL outcomes both prior to and subsequent to surgery, with a follow-up at 6, 18 and 35 weeks.

Seventy-six patients were assessed at baseline (T0), with a mean NUSS of 40 (± 13 SD). Thirty-eight patients had their first follow-up, six weeks after surgery (T1). Thirty-one patients had a second follow-up at 18 weeks (T2), and twenty patients had the third follow-up at 35 weeks (T3). The EQ-5D index mean at baseline was 0.480, followed by an index of 0.618 at T1, 0.636 at T2, and 0.702 at T3. A significant difference was found in the HRQoL score between T0 and T1, as well as T2 and T3 (p<0.001; p=0.011). The mean LEFS significantly increased from 26 before intervention to 34, 39, and 43 after treatment (p<0.001; p=0.033; p=0.016).

This study demonstrated a significant improvement in the health-related quality of life of patients with post-traumatic long bone non-unions after the standardized treatment algorithm following the induced membrane technique.

In chronically infected fracture non-unions, treatment requires extensive debridement to remove necrotic and infected bone, often resulting in large defects requiring elaborate and prolonged bone reconstruction. One approach includes the induced membrane technique (IMT), although the differences in outcome between infected and non-infectious aetiologies remain unclear. Here we present a new rabbit humerus model for IMT secondary to infection, and, furthermore, we compare bone healing in rabbits with a chronically infected non-union compared to non-infected equivalents.

A 5 mm defect was created in the humerus and filled with a polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) spacer or left empty (n=6 per group). After 3 weeks, the PMMA spacer was replaced with a beta-tricalcium phosphate (chronOs, Synthes) scaffold, which was placed within the induced membrane and observed for a further 10 weeks. The same protocol was followed for the infected group, except that four week prior to treatment, the wound was inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus (4×10⁶ CFU/animal) and the PMMA spacer was loaded with gentamicin, and systemic therapy was applied for 4 weeks prior to chronOs application.

All the animals from the infected group were culture positive during the first revision surgery (mean 3×10⁵ CFU/animal, n= 12), while at the second revision, after antibiotic therapy, all the animals were culture negative. The differences in bone healing between the non-infected and infected groups were evaluated by radiography and histology. The initially infected animals showed impaired bone healing at euthanasia, and some remnants of bacteria in histology. The non-infected animals reached bone bridging in both empty and chronOs conditions.

We developed a preclinical in vivo model to investigate how bacterial infection influence bone healing in large defects with the future aim to explore new treatment concepts of infected non-union.

Background

The molecular mechanisms underlying non-union bone fractures largely remain elusive. Recently, spatial transcriptomics approaches for musculoskeletal tissue samples have been developed requiring direct placement of histology sections on barcoded slides. However, Formalin-Fixed-Paraffin-Embedded (FFPE) bone sections have been associated with limited RNA quality and read depth compared to soft tissue. Here, we test spatial transcriptomics workflows based on transcriptomic probe transfer to characterize molecular features discriminating non-union and union bone fractures in mice.

Introduction and Objective

Management of gap non-union of the tibia, the major weight bearing bone of the leg remains controversial. The different internal fixation techniques are often weighed down by relatively high complication rates that include fractures which fail to heal (non-union). Minimally invasive techniques with ring fixators and bone transport (distraction osteogenesis) have come into picture as an alternative allowing alignment and stabilization, avoiding a graduated approach. This study was focused on fractures that result in a gap non-union of > 6 cm. Ilizarov technique was employed for management of such non-unions in this case series. The Ilizarov apparatus consists of rings, rods and kirschner wires that encloses the limb as a cylinder and uses kirschner wires to create tension allowing early weight bearing and stimulating bone growth. Ilizarov technique works on the principle of distraction osteogenesis, that is, pulling apart of bone to stimulate new bone growth. Usually, 4–5 rings are used in the setup depending on fracture site and pattern for stable fixation. In this study, we demonstrate effective bone transport and formation of gap non-union more than 6 cm in 10 patients using only 3 rings construct Ilizarov apparatus.

This review is aimed at clinicians appraising preclinical trauma studies and researchers investigating compromised bone healing or novel treatments for fractures. It categorises the clinical scenarios of poor healing of fractures and attempts to match them with the appropriate animal models in the literature. We performed an extensive literature search of animal models of long bone fracture repair/nonunion and grouped the resulting studies according to the clinical scenario they were attempting to reflect; we then scrutinised them for their reliability and accuracy in reproducing that clinical scenario. Models for normal fracture repair (primary and secondary), delayed union, nonunion (atrophic and hypertrophic), segmental defects and fractures at risk of impaired healing were identified. Their accuracy in reflecting the clinical scenario ranged greatly and the reliability of reproducing the scenario ranged from 100% to 40%. It is vital to know the limitations and success of each model when considering its application

A significant number of fractures develop non-union. Stem cell therapy may be beneficial in their treatment, however this requires acquisition, culture and delivery of stem cells. Stem cell homing and migration is regulated through SDF-1 and its receptor CXCR4. Studies have demonstrated endogenous mobilisation of different populations of stem and progenitor cells by administering growth factors with a pharmacological antagonist of CXCR4, AMD3100. This may therefore be a means to improve compromised fracture healing. A 1.5mm femoral osteotomy in adult female Wistar rats was stabilised with an external skeletal fixator. After osteotomy, saline/PBS (P) VEGF (V), IGF-1 (I) or GCSF (G) (100ug/kg, 0.5ml/100g i.p.), were administered daily for 4 days. On day 5, a single 5mg/kg i.p. dose of AMD3100 was given. Control group (C) did not receive growth factors or AMD 3100. At 5 weeks, the femur was retrieved and microCT scanned. Compared to group C (n=7), group P (n=5) had a significant increase in bone volume (P=0.01) 8.9±2.2um∧3 (control 4.3±3.1um∧3) and trabecular thickness (P=0.03). Group I (n=6) also had a significant increase in bone volume (P=0.035) 5.1±4.2um∧3 and trabecular thickness 0.062±0.008um (control 0.042±0.01um) (P=0.01). Group V (n=8), showed a non-significant increase in bone volume; 5.22±1.7um∧3 and trabecular thickness 0.048±0.007um. Group G (n=5) showed a significant decrease in bone volume (2.5±2.6um∧3) (P=0.048). AMD3100 alone and IgF1-AMD3100, showed the greatest increase in bone formation, presumably through mobilisation of beneficial combinations of stem and progenitor cells. GCSF-AMD3100, which is expected to mobilise hematopoietic progenitors inhibited bone healing.

In atrophic non-union models, a minimally invasive technique is used to deliver stem cells into the fracture site via percutaneous injection. This technique is significantly affected by a backflow leakage and the net number of cells might be reduced. The Z-track method is a technique used in clinical practice for intramuscular injections to prevent backflow leakage.

We evaluated the potential of the Z-track injection technique for preventing cell loss in non-union models by determining the behaviour of observable marker fluids. Firstly, toluene blue stain was used as an injection material to allow visual detection of its distribution. Rat's cadaver legs were used and tibias were kept unbroken to ensure intact skin and overlying soft tissue. Technique includes pulling the skin over the shin of tibia towards the ankle and injection of the dye around the mid-shaft. The needle was then partially pulled back, the skin was returned to its normal position and a complete extraction of the needle was followed. Secondly, a mixture of contrast material and toluene blue was used to allow direct visual and radiological detection of the injected material into the fracture site. Ante-grade nailing of tibia via tibial tuberosity was carried out followed by a 3 point closed fracture. Injection was performed into the fracture gap similarly to the steps above. X-rays were taken to visualise the location and distribution of the injected material.

Observation revealed no blue stain could be detected over the skin, X -rays revealed that the radiopaque dye remained around the tibia with no escape of the material into the superficial layers or onto the skin surface. Therefore, the number of cells delivered and maintained at a target site could be increased by the Z-track method and therefore, the therapeutic benefit of stem cell injections could be optimised with this simple technique.

Appropriate in vivo models can be used to understand atrophic non-union pathophysiology. In these models, X-ray assessment is essential and a reliable good quality images are vital in order to detect any hidden callus formation or deficiency. However, the radiographic results are often variable and highly dependent on rotation and positioning from the detector/film. Therefore, standardised A-P and lateral x-ray views are essential for providing a full radiological picture and for reliably assessing the degree of fracture union.

We established and evaluated a method for standardised imaging of the lower limb and for reliably obtaining two perpendicular views (e.g. true A-P and true lateral views). The normal position of fibula in murine models is posterolateral to the tibia, therefore, a proper technique must show fibula in both views. In order to obtain the correct position, the knee joint and ankle joints were flexed to 90 degrees and the foot was placed in a perpendicular direction with the x-ray film. To achieve this, a leg holder was made and used to hold the foot and the knee while the body was in the supine position. Lateral views were obtained by putting the foot parallel to the x-ray film. Adult Wister rat cadavers were used and serial x-rays were taken.

A-P view in supine position showed the upper part of the fibula clearly, however, there was an unavoidable degree of external rotation in the whole lower limb, and the lower part of the fibula appeared behind the tibia. Therefore, a true A-P view whilst the body was in the supine position was difficult. To overcome this, a P-A view of the leg was performed with the body prone position, this allowed both upper and lower parts of the fibula to appear clearly in both views. This method provides two true perpendicular views (P-A and lateral) and helped to optimise radiological assessment.

There is a growing trend towards using pre-clinical models of atrophic non-union. This study investigated different fixation devices, by comparing the mechanical stability at the fracture site of tibia bone fixed by either intramedullary nail, compression plate or external fixator. 40 tibias from adult male Wistar rats' cadavers were osteotomised at the mid-shaft and a gap of 1 mm was created and maintained at the fracture site to simulate criteria of atrophic non-union model. These were divided into five groups (n=8 in each): the first group was fixed with 20G intramedullary nail, the second group with 18G nail, the third group with 4-hole plate, the fourth group with 6-hole plate, and the fifth group with external fixator. Tibia was harvested by leg disarticulation from the knee and ankle joints, the soft tissues were carefully removed from the leg, and tibias were kept hydrated throughout the experiment. Each group was then subdivided into two subgroups for mechanical testing: one for axial loading (n=4) and one for 4-point bending (n=4). Statistical analysis was carried out by ANOVA with a fisher post-hoc comparison between groups. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Axial load to failure data and stiffness data revealed that intramedullary nails are significantly stronger and stiffer than other devices, however there was no statistically significant difference axially between the nail thicknesses. In bending, load to failure revealed that 18G nails are significantly stronger than 20G. We concluded that 18G nail is superior to the other fixation devices, therefore it has been used for in-vivo experiments to create a novel model of atrophic non-union with stable fixation.

Background

Despite the known multifactorial nature of scaphoid wrist fracture non-union, a possible genetic predisposition for the development of this complication remains unknown. This pilot study aimed to address this issue by performing Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) analysis of specific genes known to regulate fracture healing.

There is a growing trend towards using pre-clinical models of atrophic non-union. This study investigated different fixation devices, by comparing the mechanical stability at the fracture site of tibia bone fixed by either intramedullary nail, compression plate or external fixator. 40 tibias from adult male Wistar rats' cadavers were osteotomised at the mid-shaft and a gap of 1 mm was created and maintained at the fracture site to simulate criteria of atrophic non-union model. These were divided into five groups (n=8 in each): the first group was fixed with 20G intramedullary nail, the second group with 18G nail, the third group with 4-hole plate, the fourth group with 6-hole plate, and the fifth group with external fixator. Tibia was harvested by leg disarticulation from the knee and ankle joints, the soft tissues were carefully removed from the leg, and tibias were kept hydrated throughout the experiment. Each group was then subdivided into two subgroups for mechanical testing: one for axial loading (n=4) and one for 4-point bending (n=4).

Statistical analysis was carried out by ANOVA with a fisher post-hoc comparison between groups. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Axial load to failure data and stiffness data revealed that intramedullary nails are significantly stronger and stiffer than other devices, however there was no statistically significant difference axially between the nail thicknesses. In bending, load to failure revealed that 18G nails are significantly stronger than 20G. We concluded that 18G nail is superior to the other fixation devices, therefore it has been used for in-vivo experiments to create a novel model of atrophic non-union with stable fixation.

The primary aim was to assess the reliability of ultrasound in the assessment of humeral shaft fracture healing. The secondary aim was to estimate the accuracy of ultrasound assessment in predicting humeral shaft nonunion. Twelve patients (mean age 54yrs [20–81], 58% [n=7/12] female) with a non-operatively managed humeral diaphyseal fracture were prospectively recruited and underwent ultrasound scanning at six and 12wks post-injury. Scans were reviewed by seven blinded observers to evaluate the presence of sonographic callus. Intra- and inter-observer reliability were determined using the weighted kappa and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Accuracy of ultrasound assessment in nonunion prediction was estimated by comparing scans for patients that united (n=10/12) with those that developed a nonunion (n=2/12). At both six and 12wks, sonographic callus was present in 11 patients (10 united, one developed a nonunion) and sonographic bridging callus (SBC) was present in seven patients (all united). Ultrasound assessment demonstrated substantial intra- (6wk kappa 0.75, 95% CI 0.47-1.03; 12wk kappa 0.75, 95% CI 0.46-1.04) and inter-observer reliability (6wk ICC 0.60, 95% CI 0.38-0.83; 12wk ICC 0.76, 95% CI 0.58-0.91). Absence of sonographic callus demonstrated a sensitivity of 50%, specificity 100%, positive predictive value (PPV) 100% and negative predictive value (NPV) 91% in nonunion prediction (accuracy 92%). Absence of SBC demonstrated a sensitivity of 100%, specificity 70%, PPV 40% and NPV 100% (accuracy 75%). Of three patients at risk of nonunion based on reduced radiographic callus formation (Radiographic Union Score for HUmeral fractures <8), one had SBC on 6wk ultrasound (and united) and the other two had non-bridging or absent sonographic callus (both developed a nonunion). Ultrasound assessment of humeral shaft fracture healing was reliable and predictive of nonunion, and may be a useful tool in defining the risk of nonunion among patients with reduced radiographic callus formation