Knowledge of the premorbid glenoid shape and the morphological changes the bone undergoes in patients with glenohumeral arthritis can improve surgical outcomes in total and reverse shoulder arthroplasty. Several studies have previously used scapular statistical shape models (SSMs) to predict premorbid glenoid shape and evaluate glenoid erosion properties. However, current literature suggests no studies have used scapular SSMs to examine the changes in glenoid surface area in patients with glenohumeral arthritis. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the glenoid articular surface area between pathologic glenoid cavities from patients with glenohumeral arthritis and their predicted premorbid shape using a scapular SSM. Furthermore, this study compared pathologic glenoid surface area with that from virtually eroded glenoid models created without influence from internal bone remodelling activity and osteophyte formation. It was hypothesized that the pathologic glenoid cavities would exhibit the greatest glenoid surface area despite the eroded nature of the glenoid and the medialization, which in a vault shape, should logically result in less surface area.

Computer tomography (CT) scans from 20 patients exhibiting type A2 glenoid erosion according to the Walch classification [Walch et al., 1999] were obtained. A scapular SSM was used to predict the premorbid glenoid shape for each scapula. The scapula and humerus from each patient were automatically segmented and exported as 3D object files along with the scapular SSM from a pre-operative planning software. Each scapula and a copy of its corresponding SSM were aligned using the coracoid, lateral edge of the acromion, inferior glenoid tubercule, scapular notch, and the trigonum spinae. Points were then digitized on both the pathologic humeral and glenoid surfaces and were used in an iterative closest point (ICP) algorithm in MATLAB (MathWorks, Natick, MA, USA) to align the humerus with the glenoid surface. A Boolean subtraction was then performed between the scapular SSM and the humerus to create a virtual erosion in the scapular SSM that matched the erosion orientation of the pathologic glenoid. This led to the development of three distinct glenoid models for each patient: premorbid, pathologic, and virtually eroded (Fig. 1). The glenoid surface area from each model was then determined using 3-Matic (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium).

Figure 1. (A) Premorbid glenoid model, (B) pathologic glenoid model, and (C) virtually eroded glenoid model.

The average glenoid surface area for the pathologic scapular models was 70% greater compared to the premorbid glenoid models (P < 0 .001). Furthermore, the surface area of the virtual glenoid erosions was 6.4% lower on average compared to the premorbid glenoid surface area (P=0.361).

The larger surface area values observed in the pathologic glenoid cavities suggests that sufficient bone remodelling exists at the periphery of the glenoid bone in patients exhibiting A2 type glenohumeral arthritis. This is further supported by the large difference in glenoid surface area between the pathologic and virtually eroded glenoid cavities as the virtually eroded models only considered humeral anatomy when creating the erosion.

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Patients receiving reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) often have osseous erosions because of glenohumeral arthritis, leading to increased surgical complexity. Glenoid implant fixation is a primary predictor of the success of RTSA and affects micromotion at the bone-implant interface. Augmented implants which incorporate specific geometry to address superior erosion are currently available, but the clinical outcomes of these implants are still considered short-term. The objective of this study was to investigate micromotion at the glenoid-baseplate interface for a standard, 3 mm and 6 mm lateralized baseplates, half-wedge, and full-wedge baseplates. It was hypothesized that the mechanism of load distribution from the baseplate to the glenoid will differ between implants, and these varying mechanisms will affect overall baseplate micromotion.

Clinical CT scans of seven shoulders (mean age 69 years, 10°-19° glenoid inclinations) that were classified as having E2-type glenoid erosions were used to generate 3D scapula models using MIMICS image processing software (Materialise, Belgium) with a 0.75 mm mesh size. Each scapula was then repeatedly virtually reconstructed with the five implant types (standard,3mm,6mm lateralized, and half/full wedge; Fig.1) positioned in neutral version and inclination with full backside contact. The reconstructed scapulae were then imported into ABAQUS (SIMULIA, U.S.) finite element software and loads were applied simulating 15°,30°,45°,60°,75°, and 90° of abduction based on published instrumented in-vivo implant data. The micromotion normal and tangential to the bone surface, and effective load transfer area were recorded for each implant and abduction angle. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to perform statistical analysis.

Maximum normal micromotion was found to be significantly less when using the standard baseplate (5±4 μm), as opposed to the full-wedge (16±7 μm, p=0.004), 3 mm lateralized (10±6 μm, p=0.017), and 6 mm lateralized (16±8 μm, p=0.007) baseplates (Fig.2). The half-wedge baseplate (11±7 μm) also produced significantly less micromotion than the full-wedge (p=0.003), and the 3 mm lateralized produced less micromotion than the full wedge (p=0.026) and 6 mm lateralized (p=0.003). Similarly, maximum tangential micromotion was found to be significantly less when using the standard baseplate (7±4 μm), as opposed to the half-wedge (12±5 μm, p=0.014), 3 mm lateralized (10±5 μm, p=0.003), and 6 mm lateralized (13±6 μm, p=0.003) baseplates (Fig.2). The full wedge (11±3 μm), half-wedge, and 3 mm lateralized baseplate also produced significantly less micromotion than the 6 mm lateralized (p=0.027, p=012, p=0.02, respectively). Both normal and tangential micromotion were highest at the 30° and 45° abduction angles (Fig.2). The effective load transfer area (ELTA) was lowest for the full wedge, followed by the half wedge, 6mm, 3mm, and standard baseplates (Fig.3) and increased with abduction angle.

Glenoid baseplates with reduced lateralization and flat backside geometries resulted in the best outcomes with regards to normal and tangential micromotion. However, these types of implants are not always feasible due to the required amount of bone removal, and medialization of the bone-implant interface. Future work should study the acceptable levels of bone removal for patients with E-type glenoid erosion and the corresponding best implant selections for such cases.

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Massive irreparable rotator cuff tears often lead to superior migration of the humeral head, which can markedly impair glenohumeral kinematics and function. Although treatments currently exist for treating such pathology, no clear choice exists for the middle-aged patient demographic. Therefore, a metallic subacromial implant was developed for the purpose of restoring normal glenohumeral kinematics and function. The objective of this study was to determine this implant's ability in restoring normal humeral head position. It was hypothesized that (1) the implant would restore near normal humeral head position and (2) the implant shape could be optimized to improve restoration of the normal humeral head position.

A titanium implant was designed and 3D printed. It consisted of four design variables that varied in both implant thickness (5mm and 8mm) and curvature of the humeral articulating surface (high constraint and low constraint. To assess these different designs, these implants were sequentially assessed in a cadaver-based biomechanical testing protocol. Eight cadaver specimens (64 ± 13 years old) were loaded at 0, 30, and 60 degrees of glenohumeral abduction using a previously developed shoulder simulator. An 80N load was equally distributed across all three deltoid heads while a 10N load was applied to each rotator cuff muscle. Testing states included a fully intact rotator cuff state, a posterosuperior massive rotator cuff tear state (cuff deficient state), and the four implant designs. An optical tracking system (Northern Digital, Ontario, Canada) was used to record the translation of the humeral head relative to the glenoid in both superior-inferior and anterior-posterior directions.

Hemiarthroplasty is a common procedure that is an attractive alternative to total arthroplasty because it conserves natural tissue, allows for quicker recovery, and has a lower cost. One significant issue with hemiarthroplasties is that they lead to accelerated wear of the opposing native cartilage, likely due to the high stiffness of the implant. The purpose of this study was to investigate the range of currently available biomaterials for hemiarthroplasty applications. We employed a finite-element (FE) model of a radial head implant against the native capitellum as our joint model.

The FE model was developed in ABAQUS v6.14 (Dassault Systèmes Simulia Corp., Providence, RI, USA). A solid axisymmetric concave implant with seven different materials and the native radial head were evaluated, six modelled as elastic materials with different Young's moduli (E) and Poisson's Ratios (ν), and one modelled as a Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic material. The materials investigated were CoCr (E=230 GPa, ν = 0.3), PEEK (E=3.7 GPa, ν = 0.36), HDPE (E=2.7 GPa, ν = 0.42), UHMWPE (E=0.69 GPa, ν = 0.49), Bionate 75D (E=0.288 GPa, ν = 0.39), Bionate 55D (E=0.039 GPa, ν = 0.45), and Bionate 80A (modelled as a Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic material). A load of 100 N was applied to the radius through the center of rotation representing a typical load through the radius. The variable of interest was articular contact stress on the capitellum.

The CoCr implant had a maximum contact stress over 114% higher than the native radial head. By changing the material to lower the stiffness of the implant, the maximum contact stress was 24%, 70%, 105%, 111%, 113%, and 113% higher than the native radial head for Bionate 80A, Bionate 55D, Bionate 75D, UHMWPE, HDPE, and PEEK respectively.

This work shows that lowering implant stiffness can reduce the contact stress on cartilage in hemiarthroplasty implants. By changing the material below a Young's modulus of ∼100 MPa elevated stresses on the capitellum can be markedly reduced and hence potentially reduce or prevent degenerative changes of the native articulating cartilage. Low stiffness implant materials are not a novel concept, but to date there have been few that investigate materials (such as Bionate) as a potential load bearing material for implant applications. Further work is required to assess the efficacy of these materials for articular bearing applications.

Purpose

Glenoid component loosening is a common reason for failed total shoulder arthroplasty. Multiple factors have been suggested as causes for component loosening that may be related to cement technique. The purpose of the study was to compare the load transfer across a polyethylene glenoid bone construct with two different cementing techniques.

Purpose

The management of moderate to large engaging Hill-Sachs lesions is controversial and surgical options include remplissage, allograft reconstruction, and partial resurfacing arthroplasty. Few in-vitro studies have quantified their biomechanical characteristics and none have made direct comparisons. The purpose of this study was to compare joint stability and range of motion (ROM) among these procedures using an in-vitro shoulder simulator. It was hypothesized that all procedures would prevent defect engagement, but allograft and partial resurfacing would most accurately restore intact biomechanics; while remplissage would provide the greatest stabilization, possibly at the expense of motion.

Purpose

The coronoid and collateral ligaments are key elbow stabilizers. When repair of comminuted coronoid fractures is not possible, prosthetic replacement may restore elbow stability. A coronoid prosthesis has been designed with an extended tip in an effort to augment elbow stability in the setting of residual collateral ligament insufficiency. The purpose of this biomechanical study, therefore, was to compare an anatomic coronoid replacement with an extended tip implant both with and without ligament insufficiency.

Purpose

The remplissage procedure may be performed as an adjunct to Bankart repair to address an engaging Hill-Sachs defect. Clinically, it has been reported that the remplissage procedure improves joint stability but that it may also restrict shoulder range of motion. The purpose of this biomechanical study was to examine the effects of the remplissage procedure on shoulder motion and stability. We hypothesized that the remplissage procedure would improve stability and prevent engagement but may have a deleterious effect on motion.

Purpose

The remplissage technique of insetting the infraspinatus tendon and posterior joint capsule into an engaging Hill-Sachs lesion has gained in popularity. However, a standardized technique for suture anchor and suture placement has not been defined for this novel procedure. The purpose of this biomechanical study was to compare three remplissage techniques by evaluating their effects on joint stiffness and motion.

Purpose

The coronoid process is an integral component for elbow stability. In the setting of a comminuted coronoid fracture, where repair is not possible, a prosthetic device may be beneficial in restoring elbow stability. The hypothesis of this in-vitro biomechanical study was that an anatomic coronoid prosthesis would restore stability to the coronoid deficient elbow.

Purpose

Capitellum hemiarthroplasty is an emerging concept. The current metallic capitellar implants have spherical surface shapes, but the native capitellum is not spherical. This study evaluated the effect of capitellar implant shape on the contact mechanics of the radiocapitellar joint when articulating with the native radial head.

Purpose: Loosening of glenoid components in total shoulder arthroplasty is a common clinical problem which can necessitate revision surgery. The mechanism of loosening is poorly understood and may relate to implant design, component fixation techniques, and interfacial tensile stresses. We are unaware of any studies that have examined the fundamental aspects of load transfer to bone for various joint loading configurations. Hence, the objective of this study was to investigate the effect of joint loading on bone strain adjacent to a poly-ethylene glenoid implant.

Method: Five specimens (4 males; avg age: 59.5 yrs) implanted with a cemented, all polyethylene component (Anatomical Shoulder; Zimmer) were tested using an apparatus capable of producing loading vectors with various angles, magnitudes and directions. Each specimen was tested using a ramp load of 0–150 N (at 10N/sec) in two directions (superior and inferior) and with six angles of load application. A uniaxial strain gauge was placed in each of the four quadrants of the glenoid, approximately 1 mm medial to the glenoid rim. The primary axis of each strain gauge was oriented medio-laterally to record bone strains. The humeral head was simulated by a custom steel ball with a radius of curvature consistent with a nonconforming humeral prosthesis.

Results: The relationship between strain and applied force was not linear (superior quadrant at 40o: linear fit R2=0.96; quadratic fit R2=0.999; p< 0.0005), and was dependent on the loading angle. During pure compressive loading, tension was observed in the superior and inferior quadrants of the glenoid; while less consistent results in the anterior and posterior quadrants revealed variable tension and compression. Superior and inferior loading each caused increasing ipsilateral tension, occurring from 0–30o and 0–20o, respectively.

Conclusion: The current study is thought to be the first to directly measure load transfer at the implant-bone interface. We demonstrated load transfer nonlinearities between a surgically implanted glenoid component and the underlying bone in all locations and for a wide range of loading conditions. This has important implications towards the modeling of these constructs using finite element analyses. The results also illustrate tensile loading during compressive and small eccentricity loading cases. These results suggest a polyethylene flexure, causing the periphery of the glenoid implant to flex upwards placing the cement mantle and underlying bone in tension. Tensile loads that are linked to cement mantle fracture and implant loosening are produced under loading conditions associated with activities of daily living. This study has provided insight into the mechanisms of load transfer between a cemented polyethylene glenoid implant and the underlying bone. Reduction or elimination of these interfacial tensile stresses around the glenoid periphery should be considered when developing novel methods for component fixation.

Purpose: Techniques to quantify soft-tissue forces in the upper extremity are not well described. Consequently, ligament forces of the elbow joint have not been reported. Knowledge of the magnitudes of tension of the primary valgus stabilizer, the anterior bundle of the medial collateral ligament (AMCL), would allow for an improved understanding of the load bourne by the ligament. The purpose of this in vitro study was to quantify the magnitude of tension in the native AMCL throughout flexion with the arm in the valgus orientation. We hypothesized that tension in the AMCL would increase with flexion.

Method: Five fresh-frozen cadaveric upper extremities (mean age 72 ± 10 years) were tested. To produce active muscle loading in a motion simulator, cables were affixed to the distal tendons of the brachialis, biceps brachii, triceps brachii, and brachioradialis and attached to actuators. The wrist was fixed in neutral flexion/extension and the forearm in neutral rotation. The arm was orientated in the valgus gravity-loaded position. A custom designed ligament load transducer was inserted into the AMCL. Active simulated flexion was achieved via computer-controlled actuation while passive elbow flexion was achieved by an investigator manually guiding the arm through flexion. Motion of the ulna relative to the humerus was measured using a tracking device.

Results: Both the active and passive motion pathways showed an increase in AMCL tension with increasing angles of elbow flexion (p < 0.05). There was no difference in AMCL tension levels between active and passive elbow flexion (p = 0.20). The mean maximum tension achieved was 97±33N and 94±40 N for active and passive testing respectively.

Conclusion: AMCL tension levels were observed to increase with elbow flexion, indicating that other structures (such as the joint capsule and the shape of the articulation) are likely more responsible for joint stability near full extension, and that the AMCL is recruited at increased angles of elbow flexion. With respect to load magnitudes, Regan et al. found the maximum load to failure of the AMCL was 261 N, while Armstrong et al. reported a failure load of 143 N in cyclic testing. The maximum AMCL tension level observed in this study was 160 N. Failure of the AMCL was not observed, which may be due to differences in specimen size, age, or the method of load application. In summary, this in vitro cadaveric study has provided a new understanding of the magnitudes of AMCL tension through the arc of elbow flexion, and this has important implications with respect to the desired target strength of repair and reconstruction techniques. These findings will also assist in the development and validation of computational models of the elbow.

Purpose: Most displaced olecranon fractures can be treated with ORIF. However with severe comminution or bone loss, excision of the fragments and repair of the triceps to the ulna is recommended. The triceps can be reattached to either the anterior or posterior aspect of the ulna. The purpose of this in-vitro study was to determine the effect of triceps repair technique on elbow laxity and extension strength in the setting of olecranon deficiency.

Method: Eight unpreserved cadaveric arms were used (age 75 ± 11 years). Surface models were generated from CT images and sequential olecranon resections in 25% increments were performed using real-time navigation. Muscle tendons (biceps, brachialis, brachioradialis and triceps) were sutured to actuators of an elbow motion simulator, which produced active extension. A tracking system recorded kinematics in the varus and valgus positions. A triceps advancement was performed using either an anterior or posterior repair to the remaining olecranon in random order. Triceps extension strength was measured in the dependent position with the elbow flexed 90° using a force transducer located at the distal ulnar styloid, while triceps tension was increased from 25–200 N. Outcome variables included maximum varus-valgus elbow laxity and triceps extension strength. Two-way repeated measures ANOVAs were performed for laxity comparing resection level and repair method. Three-way repeated measures ANOVAs were performed for triceps extension strength comparing triceps tension, resection level and repair method. Significance was set at p < 0.05.

Results: Progressive olecranon resection increased elbow laxity (p < 0.001). Although the posterior repair produced slightly greater laxity for all but the 50% resection, this difference was not significant (p = 0.2). The posterior repair provided greater extension strength than the anterior repair at all applied triceps tensions and for all olecranon resections (p = 0.01). The initial 0% resection reduced extension strength for both repairs (p < 0.01), however, there was no effect of progressive olecranon resections (p = 0.09).

Conclusion: There was no significant difference in laxity between the anterior and posterior repairs. Thus even for large olecranon resections, the technique of triceps repair does not have significant influence on joint stability. Extension strength was not reduced by progressive olecranon resections, perhaps due to wrapping of the triceps tendon around the trochlea putting it in-line with the ulna and giving it a constant moment arm. Triceps extension strength was higher for the posterior repair. This is likely due to the greater distance and hence moment arm of the posterior repair to the joint rotation center. Conversely, the anterior repair brings the triceps insertion closer to the joint center, reducing the moment arm. Since there was no significant difference in laxity between the repairs, the authors favour the posterior repair due to its significantly higher triceps extension strength.

Purpose: This in-vitro study examined the effect of simulated Colles fractures on load transmitted to the distal ulna, using an in-line load cell. Our hypothesis was distal radial fracture malposition will increase distal radial ulnar joint (DRUJ) load relative to the native position of the radius.

Method: Eight fresh frozen upper-extremities were mounted in a motion simulator which enabled active forearm rotation. An osteotomy was performed just proximal to the distal radioulnar joint, and a 3-degree of freedom modular appliance was implanted which simulated Colles type distal radial fracture deformities. This device allowed for accurate adjustment of dorsal angulation and translation (0, 10, 20 and 30 degrees dorsal angulation and 0, 5 and 10mm dorsal translation both isolated and in combination). A 6-DOF load cell was inserted in the distal ulna 1.5 cm proximal to the ulnar head to quantify DRUJ joint forces. Distal ulnar loading was measured following simulated distal radial deformities with both an intact and sectioned triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC).

Results: The maximum resultant transverse distal ulnar load occurred during active forearm pronation and supination. Increasing magnitudes of dorsal angulation and translation of the distal radius increased loading in the distal ulna. For pronation with the ligaments intact, the transverse resultant load for the non-fracture, native positioning was significantly lower (p< 0.05) than the majority of malpositioned cases except for the translations only (not combined with angulation). However, all fracture orientations for supination had an increased effect on the resultant loading (p< 0.05) when ligaments were intact. Greater forces were measured in the distal ulna when the TFCC intact relative to TFCC sectioning. Sectioning the TFCC eliminated the effect of fracture malposition for both pronation and supination. The range of maximum transverse force for intact pronation and supination was between 118& #61617;34N and 130& #61617;39N, respectively. Similarly, for sectioned pronation and supination, the maximum transverse forces were and 93& #61617;40N and 89& #61617;24N, respectively.

Conclusion: Malpositioning of distal radial fractures in dorsal translation and angulation was found to increase forces in the distal ulna, which may be an important source of residual pain following malunion of Colles fractures. Healing of the distal radius in an anatomic position resulted in the least forces. Sectioning the TFCC released the tethering effect of the radius on the ulna, decreasing DRUJ force. This is the first study of its kind to attempt to quantify the forces at the DRUJ as a result of Colles fractures, and these early findings provide important baseline information related to the biomechanics of the DRUJ.

Purpose: The identification of anatomical landmarks is an important aspect of joint surgery, to ensure proper placement and alignment for implants and other reconstructive procedures. At the elbow, the center of the capitellum (derived via a digitization of the surface and subsequent sphere fitting) has been well established as a key landmark to identify the axis of rotation of the joint. For some cases, and in particular minimally invasive surgery, only small regions of the capitellum may be exposed which may lead to errors in determining the centre. The purpose of this study was to identify the optimal location of digitizations of the capitellum.

Method: Twenty-five fresh frozen cadaveric distal humeri (19 left, 6 right) were studied. Using an x-ray computed tomography scanner, volumetric images of each specimen were acquired and used to reconstruct a 3-dimensional digital model of the specimen using the Visualization Toolkit (VTK). A sphere-fit algorithm was used to determine the centre of the spherical capitellum based on manually chosen (digitized) points across the 3D capitellar surface. The true geometric centre was located by digitizing points across the entire capitellar surface. Three sub-regions of the capitellum, commensurate with typical surgical approaches with minimal dissection, were then digitized. These were superior anterior lateral (SAL), inferior anterior lateral (IAL) and a combination of these two regions. These regions were compared to the true center using a 1-way Repeated Measures ANOVA with significance set to p = 0.05.

Results: Digitizations of only SAL and IAL sub-regions resulted in the largest differences relative to the true centre: SAL = 3.9±3.4 mm, IAL = 4.2±3.4 mm, (p < 0.0005). There was no difference between SAL and IAL (p = 1.0). Digitization of the combined SAL + IAL regions, while significantly different from the entire capitellum, resulted in the smallest mean difference of 0.87±0.84 mm.

Conclusion: These data show that the region of digitization affects the accuracy of predicting the capitellum centre. In a previous study by our group, we showed that an accurate determination of the centre of a sphere can be achieved with a small surface area of digitization. In the current study, the large errors that occurred when a small surface was digitized (i.e. SAL and IAL alone), are in all likelihood, due the non-spherical nature of the capitellum. In summary, while the most precise method in locating the true centre is to digitize the entire capitellar surface where possible, an alternative approach is to digitize both the superior and inferior anterior lateral regions.

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of serial olecranon resections on elbow stability.

Method: Eight fresh, previously frozen cadaveric arms underwent CT scanning. The specimens were mounted in an in-vitro motion simulator, and kinematic data was obtained using an electromagnetic tracking system. Simulated active and passive flexion was produced with servo-motors and pneumatic pistons attached to specific muscles. Flexion was studied in the dependent, horizontal, varus, and valgus positions. Custom computer navigation software was utilized to guide serial resection of the olecranon in 12.5% increments. A triceps advancement repair was performed following each resection.

Results: Serial olecranon resections resulted in a significant increase in valgus-varus (V-V) laxity for both passive (p< 0.001) and active (p=0.04) flexion. For passive motion this increase reached statistical significance following the 12.5% resection. This corresponded to an increase in V-V laxity of 1.4 ± 0.1o and a total laxity of 7.5 ± 1.0o. For active flexion this increase reached significance following the 62.5% resection. This corresponded to an increase in V-V laxity of 5.6 ± 1.1o and a total laxity of 11.2 ± 1.5. There was no significant effect of sequential olecranon excision on elbow kinematics or stability with the elbow in the vertical or horizontal positions. The elbows became grossly unstable after resection of greater than 75% of the olecranon.

Conclusion: A progressive increase in the varus-valgus laxity of the elbow was seen with sequential excision of the olecranon. Laxity of the elbow was increased with excision of 75% of the olecranon, likely due to the loss of the bony congruity and attachment site of the posterior band of the medial collateral ligament. Gross instability resulted when 87.5% or greater was removed, likely due to damage to the anterior band of the medial collateral ligament as it inserts on the sublime tubercle of the ulna. Rehabilitation of the elbow with the arm in the dependant position should be considered following excision of the olecranon; varus and valgus orientations should be avoided. The contribution of the olecranon to elbow stability may be even more important in patients with associated ligament injuries or fractures of the elbow.

Purpose: Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the capitellum most commonly affects adolescent pitchers and gymnasts, and presents with pain and mechanical symptoms. Fragment excision is the most commonly employed surgical treatment; however, patients with larger lesions have been reported to have poorer outcomes. It’s not clear whether this is due to increased contact pressures on the surrounding articular surface, or if fragment excision causes instability of the elbow. The purpose of this study was to determine if fragment excision of simulated OCD lesions of the capitellum alters kinematics and stability of the elbow.

Method: Nine fresh-frozen cadaveric arms were mounted in an upper extremity joint motion simulator, with cables attaching the tendons of the major muscle tendons to motors and pneumatic actuators. Electromagnetic receivers attached to the radius and ulna enabled quantification of the kinematics of both bones with respect to the humerus. Three-dimensional CT scans were used to plan lesions of 12.5% (mean 0.8cm2), 25%, 37.5%, 50%, and 100% (mean 6.2cm2) of the capitellar surface, which were marked on the capitellum using navigation. Lesions were created by burring through cartilage and subchondral bone. The arms were subjected to active and passive flexion in both the vertical and valgus-loaded positions, and passive forearm rotation in the vertical position.

Results: No significant differences in varus-valgus or rotational ulnohumeral kinematics were found between any of the simulated OCD lesions and the elbows with an intact articulation with active and passive flexion, regardless of forearm rotation and the orientation of the arm (p> 0.7). Radiocapitellar kinematics were not significantly affected during passive forearm rotation with the arm in the vertical position (p=0.07–0.6).

Conclusion: In this in-vitro biomechanical study even large simulated OCD lesions of the capitellum did not alter the kinematics or laxity of the elbow at either the radiocapitellar or ulnohumeral joints. These data suggest that excision of capitellar fragments not amenable to fixation can be considered without altering elbow kinematics or decreasing stability. Further study is required to examine other factors, such as altered contact stresses on the remaining articulation, that are thought to contribute to poorer outcomes in patients with larger lesions.

Purpose: This study evaluated the accuracy of humeral component alignment in total elbow arthroplasty. An image-based navigated approach was compared against a conventional non-navigated technique. We hypothesized that an image-based navigation system would improve humeral component positioning, with navigational errors less than or approaching 2.0mm and 2.0°.

Method: Eleven cadaveric distal humeri were imaged using a CT scanner, from which 3D surface models were reconstructed. Non-navigated humeral component implantation was based on a visual estimation of the flexion-extension (FE) axis on the medial and lateral aspects of the distal humerus, followed by standard instrumentation and positioning of a commercial prosthesis by an experienced surgeon. Positioning was based on the estimated FE axis and surgeon judgment. The stem length was reduced by 75% to evaluate the navigation system independent of implant design constraints. For navigated alignment, the implant was aligned with the FE axis of the CT surface model, which was registered to landmarks of the physical humerus using the iterative closest point algorithm. Navigated implant positioning was based on aligning a 3D computer model calibrated to the implant with a 3D model registered to the distal humerus. Each alignment technique was repeated for a bone loss scenario where distal landmarks were not available for FE axis identification.

Results: Implant alignment error was significantly lower using navigation (P< 0.001). Navigated implant alignment error was 1.2±0.3 mm in translation and 1.3±0.3° in rotation for the intact scenario, and 1.1±0.5 mm and 2.0±1.3° for the bone loss scenario. Non-navigated alignment error was 3.1±1.3 mm and 5.0±3.8° for the intact scenario, and 3.0±1.6 mm and 12.2±3.3° for the bone loss scenario. Without navigation, 5 implants were aligned outside 5° for intact bone while 9 were aligned outside 10° for the bone loss scenario.

Conclusion: Image-based navigation improved the accuracy of humeral component placement to less than 2.0 mm and 2.0°. Further, outliers in implant positioning were reduced using image-based navigation, particularly in the presence of bone loss. Implant malalignment may well increase the likelihood of early implant wear, instability and loosening. It is likely that improved implant positioning will lead to fewer implant related complications and greater prosthesis longevity.

Results: Repeatability of creating motion-based JCS was less than 1 mm and 1° in all directions. The inter-specimen standard-deviations of position and orientation measurements were smaller for the motion-based than for the anatomy-based JCS in every direction and for every specimen (p< 0.006). The ulno-humeral varus angle and internal/external rotation kinematics of active flexion showed less inter-specimen variability when calculated using motion-based JCS (p< 0.05).