Introduction

Short-stem hip arthroplasty is gaining popularity as a method of treating hip arthritis in biologically younger patients. The potential benefit of using a short-stem is preservation of bone in the proximal femur for a future revision. We have compared the early clinical and radiological results of a short-stem hip arthroplasty versus a conventional total hip arthroplasty (THA) using a standard length femoral prosthesis with particular focus on functional outcome.

Background

Hip replacement surgery is an effective treatment, however quantitative outcome does not necessarily delineate the true picture. It is important to triangulate data methods in order to ascertain important contextual factors that may influence patient perception.

Background

Hip arthroscopy is well established as a diagnostic and therapeutic tool in the native hip joint. However, its application in the symptomatic post-hip arthroplasty patient is still being explored.

Introduction: To quantify the magnitude and incidence of haemodynamic changes that occurs during the fixation of extracapsular proximal femoral fractures when using either intra-medullary or extra-medullary fixation device.

Methods: A prospective group of 31 patients with extra-capsular proximal femoral fractures were randomised to either fixation using an extra-medullary compression hip screw or an intra-medullary hip screw. All patients received a general anaesthetic adhering to a standardised anaesthetic protocol including invasive blood pressure monitoring and arterial blood gas sampling. Trans-oesophageal Doppler probe and monitor was used to record pre-operative hypovolaemia and peri-operative changes in cardiac output, stroke volume and corrected flow time (FTc – a reflection of left ventricular end diastolic pressure) during placement of implants.

Results: 77% of patients were hypovolaemic preoperatively, which was corrected with an average of 439 mls of colloid replacement fluid. Application of the extra-medullary CHS produced no change in haemodynamic function. However on insertion of the IMHS we found a statistically significant reduction in stroke volume, cardiac output and FTc without changes in pulse rate or mean arterial pressure. The changes were transient with normal cardiac function returning by 5 mins post operatively.

Conclusion: The transient fall in cardiac function during insertion of the intramedullary hip screw may be caused by fat embolism entering the venous circulation. As these changes are not detected with standard non-invasive monitoring we would recommend that intramedullary devices be used with caution in elderly patients who tend to have poor physiological reserve.

Introduction: Uncemented sockets have been used for revision with good results in the literature. Tantalum coated acetabular uncemented implant is the next generation implant. We used Tritanium (Stryker Corp. Kalamazoo, USA) for revision of acetabulum and present the early results.

Aim: To determine early results of porous tantalum coated modular acetabular cups in revision hip arthroplasty.

Patients and methods:41 acetabular revisions in 41 patients were performed using Tritanium acetabular uncemented sockets between March 2007 and March 2008. Posterior approach was used for all procedures. AAOS system for acetabular bone deficiency and Harris hip score for function was used for assessment.

Results: Mean age of the patients was 67 yrs (range 45–88). 95% of cups were fixed with screws for initial stability. AAOS classification showed there were 17 % Type 1, 49 % Type 2, 24% Type 3 and 5% Type 4 defects and 5 % had no defect. Bone graft was used to in 70% of patients, mostly autograft from the reamings. Mean Harris Hip Score improved from 68 pre-operatively to 84 at the last follow-up. Cup integration was seen in 93% patients. In two patients with pelvic discontinuity there was migration and in one loosening of the implant. One patient was treated for deep vein thrombosis and one patient for infection.

Conclusion: Early results of tantalum coated acetabular socket are encouraging, in providing adequate initial stabilisation for biologic fixation in segmental, cavitatory and combined defects. Facility to use locking screws in multiple directions may help in addressing pelvic discontinuity.

Introduction: Classification systems are useful in research and clinical practise as it provides a common mode of communication and evaluation. Tibial pilon injuries are a complex group of fractures, whose classification and radiological assessment in clinical practise remains undetermined.

Methods: 50 CT scans and radiographs of tibial pilon fractures were evaluated independently by 6 orthopaedic surgeons, comprising 3 consultants, 2 registrars and 1 research fellow. Fractures were classified according to ruedi allgower, AO, Topliss et al. Each surgeon was given a period of 48 hours to review copy of the original article as well as written and diagrammatic representations. Assessment was done on two occasions, 4 weeks apart. The kappa coefficient of agreement was calculated with SPSS to determine interobserver reliability and intraobserver reproducibility of the classification systems. The evaluator was blinded as to treatment and functional outcome. Each evaluator was also asked to decide upon the fracture management based on the classification types and was compared with the actual management.

Result: The interobserver agreement for ruedi allgower, Ao and Topliss et al., was fair, moderate and poor respectively. The intraobserver agreement for ruedi allgower, AO and Topliss et al., classifications was moderate at best. There was poor agreement amongst observers regarding definite management plan based on these classification systems.

Discussion: The interobserver agreement was directly proportional to the familiarity and inversely proportional to the specificity of the classification system. The intraobserver agreement improved with experience. CT scan helped in delineating the fracture segments accurately but did not significantly affect inter or intraob-server agreement.

Conclusion: Existing classification systems help in understanding the pathoanatomy of osseous part of tibial pilon fracture complex. However, Soft tissue injury forms an integral part of this complex. Without inclusion of soft tissue injury, these classification systems have limited role in definitive management.

Background: Ankle fractures are the second commonest lower limb fractures after hip fractures and as opposed to the latter occur commonly in younger population of working age. Due to a host of different factors including the state of soft tissues and delayed presentation, there is often a delay of several days between fracture and operation, resulting in longer admissions. It is hypothesised that early intervention may shorten hospital stay and hence save on hospital resources.

Aims: To ascertain the impact of timing of ankle fracture surgery on length of post operative and total hospital stay and its implication on resources.

Methodology: Consecutive ankle fractures that underwent open reduction and internal fixation at Newcastle General Hospital over a 4-year period were studied as a retrospective cohort. Data collection from Theatre records, PAS system, case notes and radiographs was undertaken and entered in SPSS database.

Results: 431 cases of ankle fracture open reduction and internal fixation were included in the study. 41% were female and 59% were male patients, with a mean age of 39.1 years (SD±17.8), with age range from 16 to 89 years.

298 patients were operated within 48 hours of admission (early surgery group), and 136 patients after 48 hours (delayed surgery group). The mean hospital stay in the early operation group was mean 5.3 days (SD±4.9) and in the delayed surgery group it was 12.2 days (SD±8.4). The patients who were operated early had shorter total hospital stay (p< 0.001) and also had shorter post-operative stay (p< 0.05). Increasing age and female gender appeared to predispose to longer hospital stay but this was not statistically significant. Mean age, gender and ASA grade, fracture class and operating surgeon’s grade distribution were not significantly different in the early and late surgery groups.

Each patient in delayed surgery group spent an extra 6.9 days in hospital stay compared to the early surgery group, translating into an extra 937 hospital bed days. The average extra cost of hospital stay per case in the delayed surgery group (£1414) exceeds the average expense of surgery per case in that group. The delayed surgery group resulted in added expenditure of £192085 to the trauma division solely for extra hospital stay.

Conclusion: Timing of surgery in ankle fracture appears to be the most significant determinant affecting the hospital stay. This has a significant resource implication, financially and in freeing up of hospital resources, as well as impacting on the lives of this large group of patients.

Atlanto-axial rotatory fixation is a rare abnormality of the atlanto-axial joint characterised by a fixed rotated atlanto-axial joint. Duration of symptoms is the best predictor of those cases that ultimately require surgical fixation. We report 6 cases of atlanto-axial rotatory fixation that were treated at the Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital between 1998 and 2005. Diagnosis was confirmed by CT scan in all cases. The mean duration of symptoms was 8 weeks. 4 cases were reduced with halo traction, for between 7–28 days (mean 15 days), and 2 cases were reduced under anaesthesia. This was followed by application of a halo jacket in all 6 cases for between 6–12 weeks (mean 7.2 weeks). There was no significant recurrence with a mean duration of follow up 24 months. This rare series demonstrates late presenters of AARF responding favourably to non surgical intervention.

To identify mechanisms of failure in plate and nail fixation in proximal humerus fractures. 5% of the proximal humerus fractures need surgical fixation, which is carried out, principally, by open reduction and internal fixation or closed reduction and intramedullary nailing. Fixation failure remains a problem. This study answers the mode of failure of these implants regardless of the fracture personality. In-vitro testing of proximal humerus fixation devices was undertaken in 30 simulated osteoporotic bone models. Fracture-line was created at the surgical neck of humerus in all samples and fixed with five fixation devices; three plating and two nailing devices. The samples were subjected to failure under compression and torque. Failure was achieved in all models. Three failure patterns were observed in torque testing:

The two conventional plates Cloverleaf and T-plate behaved similarly, failing due to screw pull-out from both the proximal and distal fragment with a deformed plate.

The failure mode is dependent on implant properties as well, independent of the fracture personality. It is important to recognise the potential points of failure (proximal or distal fragment) when making the choice of implant to avoid fixation failure.

To investigate whether the harvesting of Hamstring graft in ACL reconstruction results in compromised knee flexion strength and proprioception, and hence knee function?, a prospective study, approved by the local Ethics Committee, to assess the function and strength of the knee joint in patients who had ACL reconstruction done using a four-strand Hamstring graft. The control group was the contra lateral knees. 28 knee joints were studied with mean follow-up of 70.1 weeks (52–156). All operated knees received an extensive set regime of pre-and post-operative physiotherapy. Assessment tools were clinical examination, Laxometer arthrometry for measured anterior draw, Biodex dynamometry and Stabilometry for Hamstring and quadriceps strength and proprioception. The knee function was assessed using a questionnaire incorporating IKDC (International knee documentation committee) performa, Lysholm 2 score, Tegner’s activity scale and Oxford knee score.

Following reconstruction (mean 70.1 weeks postop), objective assessment using Biodex dynamometer showed that mean peak flexion torque around the knee joint was 69.8 N-m and 76.2 N-m in the operated and non-operated knee respectively. There was no difference in flexion torque in both groups. Mean Flexion: Extension ratio around the knee joint was 53.9% in the operated and 53.2% in non-operated sides. Mean stability index, measured using open eye stabilometry, was 3.5 (SD 2.4) in the operated side and 3.1 (SD1.8) in the non-operated side, with no significant difference demonstrable (p< 0.05).

The mean age of patients was 28.3 years (18–44). Mean IKDC score following reconstruction was 74.8 (49–100), SD18.5. Mean Tegner’s activity scale improved from 2.5(3–7) pre-operative to post-operative 5.4(3–7), p< 0.01. Mean Lysholm 2 score improved from 53.4(41–76) pre-operatively to 85(64–100) post-operatively, p< 0.01. Subjective function of the knee on a scale of 0–10 improved from pre-operative 3.1 to post-operative 7.7 (p< 0.01). Arthrometry at 25-degree flexion and 130 N force using Laxometer showed mean anterior laxity 5.3mm on the operated side and 3.1 on the healthy side (side to side difference 2.2mm).

Conclusion: The function of the knee improved significantly following ACL reconstruction both objectively and subjectively. The harvesting of Hamstring as a graft neither compromises the flexion torque nor the proprioception around the knee joint.

To evaluate blood transfusion practice in hip and knee arthroplasty, the development of evidence based guidelines, their implementation and prospective analysis of change. An audit was carried out in 4 stages to complete the loop. Stage 1: Retrospective analysis of blood transfusion practice in primary and revision hip and knee arthroplasty. Review of case notes, nursing record, anaesthetic sheet and pathology results from a computer database was carried out. Rates of transfusion, patients’ body weight and height, peri-and post-operative blood loss, use of anticoagulants, drains, surgical approach, type of implant and cement, grade of surgeon and anaesthetist and haemodynamic complications were recorded. Stage 2: Literature search to develop evidence based guidelines for blood transfusion.

The data in stage 1 was evaluated in the light of those guidelines to determine appropriateness of blood transfusion. Stage 3: Dissemination and implementation of guidelines. Anaesthetic, Orthopaedic and audit departments were involved. Guidelines were presented, discussed, finalised and circulated.

Stage 4: Prospective re-evaluation of blood transfusion practice was undertaken. Parameters as in stage 1 plus documentation of reason for blood transfusion by the prescriber were recorded.

For stage 1, 97 Hip arthroplasty (86 primary and 11 revisions) and 119 Total knee arthroplasty procedures (109 primary and 10 revisions) over a period of 26 weeks were studied. Blood transfusion rate was 50.5% (49/97) in hip arthroplasty and 28.5% (34/119) in knee arthroplasty. Evidence based guidelines were developed. 55% transfusions were thought to be inappropriate in the light of guidelines. Following completion of stage 2 and 3, prospective audit of blood transfusion practice was initiated. It was compulsory for the person prescribing blood to document the indication. Data was collected on a daily basis for 15 weeks. In that period 150 joint replacements were undertaken. 77 hip arthroplasty (71 primary and 6 revisions) and 73 knee arthroplasty procedures (66 primary and 7 revisions) were undertaken. Blood transfusion rates for hip arthroplasty decreased to 18% (14/77) and for knee arthroplasty to 5.4% (4/73).

Overall transfusion rates decreased from 83/216 (38.5%) to 18/150 (12%) after implementation of guidelines. This represents an overall reduction of 68%.

Conclusion: A multidisciplinary approach and putting evidence based practice in place has resulted in reduced blood transfusion rates in hip and knee arthroplasty in our institution. We feel this change is an example of implementation of evidence-based practice.

Aim: To compare of strength of constructs using the newer and part specific nail systems: Polarus and European Humeral Nail with that using PHILOS and Conventional plate systems in a simulated 2-part fracture of proximal humerus, in an osteoporotic bone model.

Materials and Methods: A Biomechanical laboratory study was undertaken. Third generation composite Humerus model was used, with short e-glass epoxy fibres forming cortex and polyurethane cancellous core. Low-density polyurethane core (1.2gm/cc) was used to simulate an osteoporotic model. Osteotomy at surgical neck of humerus was carried out to create 2-part fracture of proximal humerus. Samples were fixed using one of the implants- the Polarus nail, the European Humeral Nail, PHILOS Plate, Clover Leaf Plate or T-Plate. Following fixation samples were placed in a custom made jig to fix proximal and distal ends without interfering with implants and osteotomy site. All samples were subjected to cyclical torque, torque to failure, cyclical compression and Compression loading to failure.

Results: The two Nail systems that are specifically designed for fixation of proximal humerus fracture provided significantly better fixation in all the test modalities. PHILOS construct shows less plastic deformation in cyclical torque and cyclical compression when compared to the other plates but the 2 nail systems were far superior. Locking screws did not ‘back off’ in any of the experiments involving the Polarus, European Humeral Nail and PHILOS construct, however ordinary screws used with the conventional plates did back off both in ‘torque and compression’ testing.

Conclusions: Polarus and European Humeral Nail constructs provide better stability in torque and compression as compared to PHILOS, which in turn is a more stable construct in comparison to conventional plating devices.

Aim: To investigate in vitro the mechanical stability of a locking compression plate (LCP) construct in a simulated diaphyseal fracture of the humerus at increasing distances between the plate and bone.

Materials & Method: A series of biomechanical in vitro experiments were performed using Composite Humerus Sawbone as the bone model. Osteotomy created in the mid-diaphyseal region. A 10mm osteotomy gap was bridged with a 7-hole 4.5 stainless steel plate with one of four methods: a control group consisted of a Dynamic Compression Plate applied flush to the bone and three study groups which comprised of a LCP applied flush to the bone, at 2mm and at 5mm from the bone. Standard AO technique used with locking head screws used for LCP fixation. Static and dynamic loading tests performed in a jig with the bone model fixed both proximally and distally. Samples were subjected to cyclical compression, compression load to failure, cyclical torque and torque to failure. Plastic deformation and failure was assessed. Scanning electron microscopy of the plate and screw surface allowed detailed inspection of micro-fracture in areas of fatigue.

Results: Consistent results were achieved in LCP constructs in which the plate was applied at or less than 2mm from the bone. When applied 5mm from the bone the LCP demonstrated significantly increased plastic deformation during cyclical compression and required lower loads to induce construct failure.

Conclusion: In our laboratory model a significant decrease in axial stiffness and torsional rigidity becomes evident at a distance of 5mm between plate and bone.

Introduction: The Less Invasive Stabilisation System (L.I.S.S.) is a new internal fixator for the treatment of complex distal femoral and proximal tibial fractures. Traditional treatment of these injuries is associated with recognised complications and fixation failure.

The LISS is designed to preserve periosteal perfusion and to facilitate a minimally invasive application. Self drilling unicortical screws provide angular stability with the implant giving it a mechanical and biological advantage over conventional fixation methods.

Aim: To evaluate clinical & radiological results of our experience with the LISS in the stabilisation of distal femoral and proximal tibial fractures

Method: Twenty two patients (12 male & 10 female), mean age 60.7 years (range 12–95 years) were treated in our institution over a 29 month period. Nine patients treated with proximal tibial fractures included 4 tibial plateau fractures (AO 41-B, 41-C) and 5 metaphyseal fractures (AO 41-A). Thirteen distal femoral fractures (AO-33) were treated of which 3 were periprosthetic. There were 15 low energy and 7 high energy fractures. Three open fractures of which two required soft tissue cover. Nineteen primary procedures performed following acute fractures and 3 revisions. Quality of life score was measured with SF12.

Results: Follow up rate of 91% (20/22; one died and the other left the country). Union was seen in 90% (18/20) of cases. Mean time to union was17 weeks (range 12–26) for low energy fractures and 27 weeks (range 13–52) for high energy fractures. Complications included: 2 delayed union, 2 late infections, 1 implant failure and 1 varus malunion.

Conclusion: This study demonstrates the LISS system is a useful implant for the treatment of complex fractures of the distal femur and proximal tibia, especially when bone quality is poor.

Aims: Whether the harvesting of Hamstring graft for ACL reconstruction results in compromised knee flexion strength and proprioception, and hence knee function?

Methods: A prospective study, approved by the local Ethics committee, was undertaken to assess the function and strength of the knee joint in patients who had ACL reconstruction performed using a four-strand Hamstring graft. The contra lateral knee acted as control. 28 knee joints were studied with mean follow up 70.1 weeks (range 52–156). All operated knees received an extensive set regime of pre and post-operative physiotherapy. Assessment tools were Biodex dynamometry and stabilometery for hamstring and quadriceps strength and proprioception, clinical examination, Laxometer arthrometry for measured anterior draw. The knee function was assessed using a questionnaire incorporating International knee documentation committee (IKDC) proforma, Lysholm 2 score and Tegner’s activity scale.

Results: Objective assessment using Biodex dynamometer pre-operatively showed that mean peak flexion torque was 67.86 N-m (SD± 24) in the involved knee and 76.1 N-m (SD± 22.2) in the healthy knee. Following reconstruction (mean 70.1 weeks post-op), mean peak flexion torque around the knee joint was 69.8 N-m (SD± 20.6) and 76.2 N-m (SD ±22.1) in the operated and non-operated knee (control) respectively. Flexion torque in the operated knee was as good as the control and not significantly different from the pre-operative levels.

Mean Flexion: Extension ratio around the knee joint was 53.9% in the operated and 53.2% in non-operated sides. Mean stability index, measured using open eye stabilometery, was 3.5 (SD±2.4) on the operated and 3.1 (SD±1.8) on the non-operated side, with no significant difference demonstrable.

The mean age of patients was 28.3 (range 18–44) years. Mean IKDC score following reconstruction was 74.8 (range 49–100), SD±18.5. There was significant improvement in pre and post reconstruction mean Lysholm 2 and Tegner’s activity scores (p< 0.01). Subjective function of the knee on a scale of 0–10 improved from pre-operative 3.1 to post-operative 7.7 (p< 0.01). Arthrometry at 25-degree flexion and 130 N force using Laxometer showed mean anterior laxity 5.3mm on the operated side and 3.1 on the healthy side (side to side difference 2.2mm).

Conclusion: The function of the knee improved significantly following ACL reconstruction both objectively and subjectively. The harvesting of Hamstring as a graft neither compromises the flexion torque nor the proprioception around the knee joint.

Aims: To ascertain the efficacy of viscosupplementation with Supartz intra-articular knee injections when used in the absence of a specific protocol for its use.

Methods: Retrospective cohort study using data from a dedicated injection clinic, patient case notes and knee radiographs. Patients received the therapy in the absence of a protocol for its use. Patient’s age, gender, symptoms, walking ability, presence of deformity, medication history, previous injection or surgical intervention, physiotherapy, co-morbidity, date of presentation, delivery of course of supartz injections and indication were recorded. Knee radiographs were analysed using Kellgren and Lawrence grading system. Pain relief and avoidance of surgical intervention (when surgery was an option) were the outcome measures.

Results: 965 intra-articular injections in 193 courses of supartz therapy were given in 143 patients. 45.6% were male and 54.4% were female patients. At presentation, 33.2% patients were able to walk < 1/2 a mile, 35.2% patients 1/2-1 mile and 31.6% > 1 mile. Radiological assessment (using Kellgren and Lawrence grading) showed 2 cases with stage 1 disease, 83(43%) with stage 2, 102(52.3%) with stage 3, and 6 cases with stage 4 disease. The medial compartment was involved in 185 cases (95.9%), the lateral compartment in 44 (22.8 %) and patellofemoral joint (PFJ) was involved in 122 (63.2 %).

Pain relief was obtained in 84/193 cases (43.5%). In 122 cases where the aim was to avoid surgery, this was achieved in 52 cases (42.6%). Success rate decreased with increasing severity of disease (Fisher’s Exact test; p< 0.01). Only 25/122 cases with PFJ involvement had pain relief (21%), compared to 59/71 cases without PFJ involvement (83%), (Chi squared test; χ 2(1)=71.57, p< 0.01). Younger age (< 60 years) is a poor prognostic factor (Chi squared test; χ2(1)= 5.86, p=0.02).

Conclusions: Younger patients and those with PFJ involvement and advanced disease are unlikely to benefit from Supartz intra-articular injection. We consider it inappropriate to use this therapy in the absence of a protocol for its use.

Young adults are supposed to be enthusiastic, ambitious, energetic and productive. However, the disabling pain and consequent risk of job loss arising from certain pathological conditions in the hip can almost ruin their lives.

This paper discusses the biomechanical properties of the ceramic-on-ceramic total hip arthroplasty (THA) and metal-on-metal resurfacing implants, highlighting the advantages and disadvantages, and compares the survival rates of THA and new generation hip resurfacing procedures.

Short to mid-term results of hip resurfacing seem promising, but more research is necessary to find a better solution to the problem of hip pain in young adults.

Aims: Does PHILOS (Proximal Humeral Internal Locking system) construct provides better þxation than Clover leaf plate and T-plate in a simulated 2-part fracture of proximal humerus, in an osteoporotic bone model?Materials and Methods: Biomechanical laboratory study. Third generation composite Humerus model was used, with short e-glass epoxy þbres forming cortex and polyurethane cancellous core. Low density polyure-thane core (1.2gm/cc) was used to simulate an osteoporotic model. Osteotomy at surgical neck of humerus was carried out to create 2-part fracture of proximal humerus. Samples were randomised to receive one of the implants. Following þxation samples were placed in a custom made jig to þx proximal and distal ends without interfering with implants and osteotomy site. All samples were subjected to cyclical torque, Torque to failure, Cyclical compression and Compression loading to failure. Results were entered in a database. Results: PHILOS provided signiþcantly better þxation in ÔTorque to failureñ experiment. PHILOS construct shows less plastic deformation in cyclical torque and cyclical compression. Locking screws did not Ôback offñ in any of the experiments involving PHILOS construct, however ordinary screws did back off both in Ôtoque and compressionñ testing. Conclusions: PHILOS construct provides better stability in Torque and compression as compared to conventional plating devices, in an osteoporotic bone model.

Aims: To derive a formula for blood loss estimation and also to assess if high body weight is protective against blood transfusion following elective arthroplasty? Methods: Retrospective study of patients undergoing elective primary hip arthroplasty. Weight of the patient, pre and postoperative haematological investigations and details of blood transfusion were collected. Results: Formula for blood loss estimation was derived, Blood loss= ( 70 x body weight in Kg) x (drop in haematocrit) (Pre-op haematocrit+ post-op haematocrit)Ö2

The mean blood loss in 86 patients was 1631ml. Mean blood lost/Kg body weight was 22.6ml. 36/86 patients had < 21ml/kg (42%) and 50/86 had > 21ml/kg blood loss (58%). 21 ml/kg represents 30% loss of blood volume. Patients losing > 21ml/kg blood had signiþcantly higher blood transfusion rates (Chi squared test; χ2(1)= 5.50, p=0.02).

The amount of blood loss increases with weight of patients (p< 0.01). The rates of transfusion in patients with ≤ 72 kg weight (circulatory volume ~ 5 litre) was 51% (23/45), and in patients > 72 kg it was 36.5% (15/41). Rates of transfusion were related to pre-op Hb but were unaffected by gender, age, cemented/uncemented prosthesis, surgical approach, type of prosthesis, use of drains, grade of surgeon, type of anaesthetic. Conclusion: Calculated blood loss > 21ml/kg and patientñs low body weight are associated with increased risk of blood transfusion.