Objectives

The goals of this study were: 1) to determine if high-fat diet (HFD) feeding in female mice would negatively impact biomechanical and histologic consequences on the Achilles tendon and quadriceps muscle; and 2) to investigate whether exercise and branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) supplementation would affect these parameters or attenuate any negative consequences resulting from HFD consumption.

The Masquelet technique is a variable method for treating critical-sized bone defects, but there is a need to develop a technique for promoting bone regeneration. In recent studies of bone fracture healing promotion, macrophage-mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) cross-talk has drawn attention. This study aimed to investigate macrophage expression in the induced membrane (IM) of the Masquelet technique using a mouse critical-sized bone defect model. The study involved a 3-mm bone defect created in the femur of mice and fixed with a mouse locking plate. The Masquelet (M) group, in which a spacer was inserted, and the Control (C) group, in which the defect was left intact, were established. Additionally, a spacer was inserted under the fascia of the back (B group) to form a membrane due to the foreign body reaction. Tissues were collected at 1, 2, and 4 weeks after surgery (n=5 in each group), and immunostaining (CD68, CD163: M1, M2 macrophage markers) and RT-qPCR were performed to investigate macrophage localization and expression in the tissues. The study found that CD68-positive cells were present in the IM of the M group at all weeks, and RT-qPCR showed the highest CD68 expression at 1 week. In addition, there was similar localization and expression of CD163. The C group showed lower expression of CD68 and CD163 than the M group at all weeks. The B group exhibited CD68-positive cells in the fibrous capsule and CD163-positive cells in the connective tissue outside the capsule, with lower expression of both markers compared to the M group at all weeks. Macrophage expression in IM in M group had different characteristics compared to C group and B group. These results suggest that the IM differs from the fibrous capsules due to the foreign body reaction, and the macrophage-MSC cross-talk may be involved in Masquelet technique

Aims. The efficacy of saline irrigation for treatment of implant-associated infections is limited in the presence of porous metallic implants. This study evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of antibiotic doped bioceramic (vancomycin/tobramycin-doped polyvinyl alcohol composite (PVA-VAN/TOB-P)) after saline wash in a mouse infection model implanted with titanium cylinders. Methods. Air pouches created in female BalBc mice by subcutaneous injection of air. In the first of two independent studies, pouches were implanted with titanium cylinders (400, 700, and 100 µm pore sizes) and inoculated with Staphylococcus aureus (1 × 10. 3. or 1 × 10. 6. colony-forming units (CFU)/pouch) to establish infection and biofilm formation. Mice were killed after one week for microbiological analysis. In the second study, pouches were implanted with 400 µm titanium cylinders and inoculated with S. aureus (1 × 10. 3. or 1 × 10. 6. CFU/pouch). Four groups were tested: 1) no bacteria; 2) bacteria without saline wash; 3) saline wash only; and 4) saline wash plus PVA-VAN/TOB-P. After seven days, the pouches were opened and washed with saline alone, or had an additional injection of PVA-VAN/TOB-P. Mice were killed 14 days after pouch wash. Results. The first part of the study showed that low-grade infection was more significant in 400 µm cylinders than cylinders with larger pore sizes (p < 0.05). The second part of the study showed that saline wash alone was ineffective in eradicating both low- and high-grade infections. Saline plus PVA-VAN/TOB-P eradicated the titanium cylinder-associated infections, as manifested by negative cultures of the washouts and supported by scanning electron microscopy and histology. Conclusion. Porous titanium cylinders were vulnerable to bacterial infection and biofilm formation that could not be treated by saline irrigation alone. Application of PVA-VAN/TOB-P directly into the surgical site alone or after saline wash represents a feasible approach for prevention and/or treatment of porous implant-related infections. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2024;13(11):622–631

Abstract. Objectives. Current therapies for osteoporosis are limited to generalised antiresorptive or anabolic interventions, which do not target specific regions to improve skeletal health. Moreover, the adaptive changes of separate and combined pharmacological and biomechanical treatments in the ovariectomised (OVX) mouse tibia has not been studied yet. Therefore, this study combines micro- computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging and computational modelling to evaluate the efficacies of treatments in reducing bone loss. Methodology. In vivo micro-CT (10.4µm/voxel) images of the right tibiae of N=18 female OVX C57BL/6 mice were acquired at weeks 14, 16, 18, 20 and 22 of age for 3 groups: mechanical loading (ML), parathyroid hormone (PTH) or combined therapies (PTHML). All mice received either injection of PTH (100μg/kg/day, 5days/week) or vehicle from week 18. The right tibiae were mechanically loaded in vivo at week 19 and 21 with a 12N peak load, 40 cycles/day and 3 days/week. Bone adaptation was quantified through spatial changes in bone mineral density (BMD) and strain distribution was obtained from micro-CT-based finite element models. Results. Densitometric parameters improved for all treatment between week 18–20 (10–21%), with the strongest benefits due to loading in the proximal regions (16–35%). At week 22, PTHML treatment induced 23–76% higher bone apposition in the proximal tibia than either monotherapy. Compared to the OVX control, all treatments reduced periosteal resorption at weeks 18–20 and 20–22 (20–87%). However, resorption in weeks 20–22 were 29–55% higher than weeks 18–20, increasing the strain in the proximal tibia. Synergistic effects of PTH and ML were observed on the periosteal surface of proximal tibia, but additive effects were seen predominately on the distal and lateral tibia. Conclusions. ML had a more dominant effect in improving bone health. PTH enhances bone's osteogenic response to ML additively and synergistically in a site- and time-dependent manner

Introduction. Poor osseointegration of cementless implants is the leading clinical cause of implant loosening, subsidence, and replacement failure, which require costly and technically challenging revision surgery. The mechanism of osseointegration requires further elucidation. We have recently developed a novel titanium implant for the mouse tibia that maintains in vivo knee joint function and allows us to study osseointegration in an intra-articular, load-bearing environment. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is one of the most important growth factors for regulation of vascular development and angiogenesis. It also plays critical roles in skeletal development and bone repair and regeneration. A specialized subset of vascular endothelium, CD31. hi. EMCN. hi. cells displaying high cell surface expression of CD31 and Endomucin, has been reported to promote osteoblast maturation and may be responsible for bone formation during development and fracture healing. Because of their potential role in osseointegration, the aim of this study was to use our mouse implant model to investigate the role of VEGF and CD31. hi. EMCN. hi. endothelium in osseointegration. Methods. Under an IACUC-approved protocol, the implant was inserted into the right tibia of 16-week-old female C57BL/6 mice (N = 38). The mice were then randomized into 2 groups: Control group (N=19) and Anti-VEGFR group (N=19). A cocktail of VEGFR-1 antibody (25mg/kg) and VEGFR-2 antibody (25mg/kg) was given to the mice in the Anti-VEGFR group by intraperitoneal injection every third day starting immediately after surgery until euthanasia. An equivalent amount of an isotype control antibody was given to the control group. Flow cytometric (N = 4/group) and immunofluorescencent (N = 3/group) analyses were performed at 2 weeks post-implantation to detect the distribution and density of CD31. hi. EMCN. hi. endothelium in the peri-implant bone. Pull-out testing was used at 4 weeks post-implantation to determine the strength of the bone-implant interface. Results. Flow cytometry revealed that Anti-VEGFR treatment decreased CD31. hi. EMCN. hi. vascular endothelium percentage in the peri-implant bone vs. control (p = 0.039) at 2 weeks post-implantation (Fig. 1). This was confirmed by the decrease of CD31 and EMCN double positive cells detected with immunofluorescence at the same time point (Fig. 2). More importantly, anti-VEGFR treatment decreased the maximum load of pullout testing compared with control (p = 0.042) (Fig. 3). Conclusion. VEGF is a key mediator of osseointegration and the development of CD31. hi. EMCN. hi. endothelium. This may provide a new drug target for the enhancement of osseointegration. We have also developed a system to run flow cytometric analysis and perform fluorescent staining on the limited tissue around the implant in this mouse model. This will be a powerful platform for future mechanistic studies on osseointegration. For any figures or tables, please contact authors directly

The establishment of a proper musculoskeletal system depends on the well-organized and synchronized development of muscle, tendon and cartilage/bone. In tendon biology, a great progress in identifying tendon-specific genes (Scleraxis, Mohawk, Tenomodulin) had been made in the last decade. However, there are many open questions regarding the exact function of genes in tendon development and homeostasis. The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review of publications describing tendon-related genes, which were studied in-depth and characterized by using knockout technologies and the respectively generated transgenic mouse. Method: Literature search was carried out in Pubmed using “tendon” and “mouse knockout” and “phenotype” and was not limited to year. Results: We report in a tabular manner, that from a total of 25 tendon-related genes, in 23 of the respective knockout mouse models phenotypic changes were detected. Additionally, in some of the models it was described at which developmental stages these changes appeared and progressed. Interestingly, so far only loss of Scleraxis and TGFbeta signaling led to severe tendon developmental phenotypes, while mice deficient for various proteoglycans, Mohawk, EGR1 and 2, and Tenomodulin exhibited mild phenotypes. This suggests that in general the tendon developmental program is well backup and specifically that among the members of the proteoglycan family there are clear compensatory effects. In future, it will be of great importance to discover additional master tendon transcription factors as well as genes that play indispensable roles in tendon development

The efficacy of saline irrigation for the treatment of periprosthetic infection (PJI) is limited in the presence of infected implants. This study evaluated the efficacy of vancomycin/tobramycin-doped polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/ceramic composites (PVA-VAN/TOB-P) after saline irrigation in a mouse pouch infection model. 3D printed porous titanium (Ti) cylinders (400, 700 and 100 µm in pore size) were implanted into mice pouches, then inoculated with S. aureus at the amounts of 1X10. 3. CFU and 1X10. 6. CFU per pouch, respectively. Mice were randomized into 4 groups (n=6 for each group): (1) no bacteria; (2) bacteria without saline wash; 3) saline wash only, and (4) saline wash+PVA-VAN/TOB-P. After seven days, pouches were washed out alone or with additional injection of 0.2 ml of PVA-VAN/TOB-P. Mice were sacrificed 14 days after pouch wash. Bacteria cultures of collected Ti cylinders and washout fluid and histology of pouch tissues were performed. The low-grade infection (1X10. 3. CFU) was more significant in 400 µm Ti cylinders than that in Ti cylinders with larger pore sizes (700 and 1000 µm (p<0.05). A similar pattern of high-grade infection (1X10. 6. CFU) was observed (p<0.05). For the end wash, the bacteria burden (0.49±0.02) in saline wash group was completely eradicated by the addition of PVA-VAN/TOB-P (0.005±0.001, p<0.05). We noticed that 400 µm Ti cylinders have the highest risk of implant infection. Our data supported that the effect of saline irrigation was very limited in the presence of contaminated porous Ti cylinders. PVA-VAN/TOB-P was biodegradable, biocompatible, and was effective in eradicating bacteria retention after saline irrigation in a mouse model of low grade and high-grade infection. We believe that PVA-VAN/TOB-P represents an alternative to reduce the risk of PJI by providing a sustained local delivery of antibiotics

Although the etiology of low back pain is unclear, it is believed that intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration plays a major role. In the present study, we sought to determine if bovine IVD cells maintain their phenotype in a mouse subcutaneous injection model, while embedded or not in biocompatible matrices. Nucleus pulposus (NP) cells were isolated from adult bovine tails. Ten million cells were resuspended either in 500 ƒÝl of DMEM or in a negatively (alginate) or positively (chitosan) charged matrix. The mixtures were then injected subcutaneously in Balc/c nude mice. After two weeks, the mice were sacrificed and the implants harvested. The implants were examined histologically with a hematoxylin and eosin stain. The implant size was measured and the cells were counted. Proteoglycan was assessed by the GAG assay. The expression of type I and II collagens, aggrecan, and CD24 genes was analyzed by reverse transcription ¡V polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Histologic evaluation confirms the presence of cells in all NP implants. The presence of alginate increased the implant size, the number of cells in the implants, and to a lesser extent, the proteoglycan content, compared to implants formed with cells injected alone. However, chitosan had no effect on the implant size, the number of cells and the aggrecan content. NP implants expressed the same pattern of genes as the native NP tissue (i.e. type I and II collagens, aggrecan, and CD24). The presence of alginate did not affect this expression pattern whereas chitosan decreased slightly their expression. After injection in mice, bovine NP cells appeared to retain their native phenotype. The RT-PCR analysis revealed that NP cells expressed aggrecan, type I and type II collagens as well as CD24, a specific marker for the NP phenotype. Also, NP cells can be embedded in matrices to produce NP-like features in vivo. In conclusion, we have developed a simple mouse subcutaneous injection model that recreates the features of the native IVD and avoids the need to use a disc degeneration model

Chondrosarcoma responds poorly to adjuvant therapy and therefore, new targeted therapy is required. Animal models have been utilised to test therapeutic candidates, however clinically relevant, orthotopic models are lacking. The aim of this study was to develop such a model. In vitro: two human chondrosarcoma cell lines, JJ012 and FS090, were compared with respect to proliferation, colony formation, invasion, MMP-2 and MMP-9 secretion, osteoclastogenesis, endothelial tube stimulation, and expression of the angiogenic factor VEGF, and the anti-angiogenic factor RECK on western blotting. In vivo: 20,000 cells (JJ012 or FS090) were injected either into the intramedullary canal of the mouse tibia (n=5 for each cell line), or into the tibial periosteum (n=5 for each cell line). Animals were measured, and x-rayed weekly. Once euthanised, tibias and lungs were preserved, embedded and sectioned to determine the presence of tumour and lung metastases. In vitro: compared with FS090, JJ012 demonstrated significantly higher proliferative capacity at both day two and day four (p=0.017, and p=0.01). JJ012 had a significantly greater ability to invade Matrigel with an average number of 812.5 invading cells, versus 140.8 FS090 cells (p=0.0005). JJ012 readily formed colonies in collagen I, while FS090 formed none. JJ012 conditioned medium stimulated endothelial tube formation and osteoclastogenesis with a greater potency than FS090 conditioned medium. In vivo: tumours formed in the intratibial and periosteal groups injected with JJ012, whilst no mice injected with FS090 cells developed discernable tumours on physical inspection, caliper measurement or histological section. Periosteal tumours grew to three times the non-injected limb size by seven weeks, whereas intratibial injected limbs required 10 weeks to achieve the same extent of tumour growth. All JJ012 periosteal tumours resulted in lung micrometastases, while only 2/4 JJ012 intratibial tumours demonstrated metastases. Lung metastases stained positive with Von Kossa and alizarin red stains, indicating a tendency for calcification, which is similar to metastases in the human disease. Sectioned tumour tissue demonstrated features of grade II-III chondrosarcoma. Similarities with the human disease were also noted on the X-ray, including endosteal scalloping, and cortical thickening. Both intratibial and periosteal JJ012 models replicate the site, morphology, and many behavioural characteristics of human chondrosarcoma. Local tumour invasion of bone and spontaneous lung metastasis offer valuable assessment tools to test the potential of novel agents for future chondrosarcoma therapy

Summary Statement. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) enhanced osteogenic differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells derived from mouse induced pluripotent cells (iPSCs) without embryoid body formation. Our findings provide insights on the development of LIPUS as an effective technology for bone regeneration strategies using iPSCs. Introduction. iPSCs represent a promising cell source for regenerative medicine such as bone regeneration because of their unlimited self-renewal property and ability of differentiation into all somatic cell types. Recently, we developed an efficient protocol for generating a highly homogeneous population of osteoprogenitor cells from embryonic stem cells by using a direct-plating method without EB formation step. It is well-recognised that LIPUS accelerates the fracture healing. There have been several reports showing that LIPUS stimulates the osteogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in vitro. To date, effect of LIPUS on iPSCs remains unknown. In this study, we investigated in vitro effect of LIPUS on osteogenic differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells derived from mouse iPS cells via a direct-plating method. Methods. Murine iPSC colonies were dissociated with trypsin-EDTA, and obtained single cells were cultured on gelatin-coated plates without feeders in MSC medium and FGF-2. Adherent fibroblastic cells obtained by this direct-plating technique were termed as direct-plated cells (DPCs). DPCs were evaluated for cell-surface protein expression using flow cytometry. Expression levels of Oct-3/4 mRNA in iPSCs and DPCs were analyzed by real-time PCR. For osteogenic differentiation, DPCs were divided into two groups: (1) control group: DPCs cultured in osteogenic medium (OM) without LIPUS, and (2) LIPUS group: DPCs cultured in OM with LIPUS treatment. LIPUS was given through the bottom of the culture plates for 20 minutes daily. After 14-day culture, osteogenic differentiation was evaluated by alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and Alizarin red S staining. Expression of osteoblast-related genes, Rnux2 and ALP was also analyzed by real-time PCR. Results. Flow cytometry analysis revealed DPCs had similar characteristics to MSCs. Expression level of Oct-3/4 in DPCs was robustly down-regulated compared to that in iPSCs, suggesting DPCs lost pluripotency. After 14-day osteogenic induction, ALP activity was shown to be higher in LIPUS group than control group on days 3 and 7. Real-time PCR analysis revealed that in LIPUS group, expression level of Runx2 on day 1 and that of ALP on days 3 and 5 were significantly up-regulated compared to control group. The quantity of calcium deposition measured by Alizarin red staining on day 14 was shown to be higher in LIPUS group than control group. Conclusion. The novel direct-plating method described here provides a significant technical advance over conventional methods of isolating iPSC-induced osteoprogenitor cells by avoiding the embryonic body formation that often leads to heterogeneous, variable, and unpredictable osteogenic differentiation. Our results demonstrated that osteogenic differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells from iPSCs was robustly increased by LIPUS treatment. LIPUS may be a promising enhancer of osteogenesis of iPSCs. These findings provide insights on the development of LIPUS as an effective technology for bone regeneration strategies using iPSCs

Segmental bone transport (SBT) using an external fixator is currently a standard treatment for large-diameter bone defects at the donor site with low morbidity. However, long-term application of the device is needed for bone healing. In addition, patients who received SBT treatment sometimes fail to show bone repair and union at the docking site, and require secondary surgery. The objective of this study was to investigate whether a single injection of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP-2)-loaded artificial collagen-like peptide gel (rhBMP-2/ACG) accelerates consolidation and bone union at the docking site in a mouse SBT model. Six-month-old C57BL/6J mice were reconstructed by SBT with external fixator that has transport unit, and a 2.0-mm bone defect was created in the right femur. Mice were divided randomly into four treatment groups with eight mice in each group, Group CONT (immobile control), Group 0.2mm/d, Group 1.0mm/d, and Group BMP-2. Mice in Group 0.2mm/d and 1.0mm/d, bone segment was moved 0.2 mm per day for 10 days and 1.0 mm per day for 2 days, respectively. Mice in Group BMP-2 received an injection of 2.0 μg of rhBMP-2 dissolved in ACG into the bone defect site immediately after the defect-creating surgery and the bone segment was moved 1.0 mm/day for 2 days. All animals were sacrificed at eight weeks after surgery. Consolidation at bone defect site and bone union at docking site were evaluated radiologically and histologically. At the bone defect site, seven of eight mice in Group 0.2mm/d and two of eight mice in Group 1.0mm/d showed bone union. In contrast, all mice in Group CONT showed non-union at the bone defect site. At the docking site, four of eight mice in Group 0.2 mm/d and three of eight mice in Group 1.0 mm/d showed non-union. Meanwhile, all mice in Group BMP-2 showed bone union at the bone defect and docking sites. Bone volume and bone mineral content were significantly higher in Group 0.2mm/d and Group BMP-2 than in Group CONT. HE staining of tissue from Group 0.2mm/d and Group BMP-2 showed large amounts of longitudinal trabecular bone and regenerative new bone at eight weeks after surgery at the bone defect site. Meanwhile, in Group CONT and Group 1.0mm/d, maturation of regenerative bone at the bone defect site was poor. Differences between groups were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and a subsequent Bonferroni's post-hoc comparisons test. P < 0.05 was considered significant. rhBMP-2/ACG combined with SBT may be effective for enhancing bone healing in large bone defects without the need for secondary procedures

Purpose: Bone fatigue damage can lead to stress fractures and may play a role in fragility fractures. The rat forelimb compression model has been used to examine biological responses and gene expression associated with woven bone repair after fatigue damage. Development a similar mouse model would enable the use of genetically modified mice to study molecular mechanisms associated with bone repair. Method: Following approval from our Central Animal Facility, forelimbs of male retired breeder C57BL/6 mice and Sprague Dawley rats (n=31 each) were loaded in axial compression across the carpus and olecranon. First, both forelimbs (postmortem, n=6 each) were monotonically loaded to determine failure load. Next, both forelimbs of animals (postmortem, n=5 each) were loaded cyclically to sub-fracture load (67% of monotonic load for mice, 55% for rats) until fatigue failure. Following analysis of fatigue displacement histories, right forelimbs (post-mortem, n=10 each) were loaded cyclically to a set displacement short of the expected failure displacement (mice–30%; rats–55%). Non-loaded left forelimbs served as controls. Three-point bending tests were performed on the ulnae; mechanical properties were compared between fatigued and non-loaded limbs. Finally, right forelimbs (n=10 each) were cyclically loaded in anaesthetised (2.5% isofluorane) animals to 30% (mice) and 55% (rats) of failure displacement. Animals recovered for seven days; microCT imaging and three-point bend tests were performed on the ulnae. Results: Ultimate forelimb failure loads were 5.63 ± 0.47 N (mouse) and 57.1 ± 5.8 N (rat). Measured from the 10th cycle, fatigue failure occurred at displacements of 1.68 ± 0.21 mm (mouse) and 2.96 ± 0.22 mm (rat). In three-point bending, fatigue damaged ulnae failed at significantly lower loads versus control (mouse −51.6%; rat −32.1%). After seven days healing, bone cross-sectional area was significantly greater (microCT) and mechanical properties partially recovered (−13.8% versus control). Conclusion: Rat and mouse forelimb fatigue loading models have been developed to induce repeatable bone damage. Observed differences in fatigue behaviour necessitated different loading parameters between models. Following seven days of healing, recovery of mechanical strength accompanied woven bone formation (demonstrated by microCT). Further work will compare the biological, woven bone, response between the mouse and rat forelimb models

INTRODUCTION. Loss of joint function is only exploited in osteoarthritis (OA) once severe impairment is apparent. Animal models allow for lesion induction and serial OA progression measures. We recently described an adjustable non-surgical loading model for generating focal cartilage lesions in only the lateral femur joint compartment, in which regimes can be adjusted so that these either do or do not progress spontaneously. Herein, we use ventral plane videographic treadmill gait analysis to determine whether gait changes can be used to discriminate between stable and spontaneously progressing lesions, induced by these two loading regimes. METHODS. Animals encountered normal conditions, except during loading (9N, 40 cycles, 0.1 Hz, 10 sec/ cycle) which was applied to right knees in two groups (n=8) of 8-week-old male CBA mice: i) loaded once; ii) loaded 3 times/week for 2 weeks. Gait (including: brake, propel, stance, stride, stride length, stride frequency, steps and paw area) was assessed 3 times/week for 2 weeks in each mouse using a DigigaitTM treadmill. Thereafter, mice received 5mg/kg carprofen for analgesia and gait analysis repeated on 3 further alternate days. RESULTS. The two loading regimes produced virtually identical gait modifications with delayed onset (apparent on day 3) which remained unchanged for 2 weeks; mice loaded once only showed modified contralateral limb use, but those loaded multiply exhibited additional ipsilateral front limb modifications; no changes in gait were observed in loaded limbs. Intriguingly, the two regimes produced distinct responses to analgesia. Load-induced gait changes were completely rescued by carprofen in mice loaded only once, whilst those in mice loaded repetitively persisted. CONCLUSION. Our findings reveal specific and reproducible, compensatory changes in contralateral, non-loaded limb gait induced by any joint loading which produces focal articular lesions, and modified ipsilateral front limb use only when progressing lesions are induced by repetitive loading. We find that pain relief completely alleviates all gait modifications associated with stable lesions induced by single loading, but not those induced by repetitive loading. Differing responses in mice with stable and progressive articular cartilage load-induced lesions suggests that gait behaviour in a mechanical loading model of OA may predict joint degeneration

Edema and infection represent serious complications of blunt extremity trauma. It is important to differentiate between pathophysiological changes within tissues proximal and within distal to the site of trauma. The aim was to investigate the effects of soft tissue trauma on the microcirculation of the mouse lower limb. Endothelial leakage and leukocyte accumulation proximal and distal to the site of trauma were studied using intravital fluorescence microscopy. Low-energy trauma to the lower limb was defined in previous experiments as a trauma transferring 50% of the energy required to produce tibial fracture. The trauma was inflicted under general anesthesia by an accelerator, hitting the mid-section of the calf in a perpendicular direction. 5, 90, and 180 minutes after trauma, the following microcirculatory parameters were measured: diameter of arterioles, venules, functional capillary density (FCD), extravasation of FITC-dextrane, and leukocyte-endothelial cell-interactions. Two groups (control and trauma) were studied proximal to, distal to and at the site of trauma. Skin, subcutaneous tissue and muscle were investigated individually in the trauma and the control groups (each group n=7). At the site of trauma, distinct extravasation and edema formation in all tissues was observed. In subcutaneous and muscle tissue, microvascular thrombosis as well as edema were detected proximal and distal to the trauma. FCD was reduced in muscle and fat tissue. The numbers of rolling and adherent leukocytes were enhanced 5 minutes after trauma and throughout the observational period. Our results demonstrate endothelial leakage and extravasation early after low-energy soft tissue trauma in all soft tissues proximal and distal to the site of trauma. In addition, we found high accumulation of leukocytes in all locations, especially in soft tissues. The model presented is ideally suited for the in vivo investigation of new therapeutic strategies for edema and thrombosis prevention in animals with soft tissue trauma

Introduction. Enhanced angiogenesis and osteogenesis may provide new strategies for the treatment of osteonecrosis. Methods. Synergistic effects of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and bone morphogenetic protein - 6 (BMP-6) on in vitro osteogenic differentiation and in vivo ectopic bone formation mediated by a cloned mouse bone marrow stromal cell line, D1, previously isolated from Balb/c mice in our laboratory, were determined. Results. When human VEGF and BMP-6 genes both were expressed in D1 cells, significant increase in alkaline phosphatase activity was observed as compared to D1 cells in control groups. In the in vivo study, D1 cells transfected with hVEGF and hBMP-6 were loaded onto a 3-D PLAGA (polylactic-co-glycolic acid) scaffold and implanted subcutaneously in Balb/c mice. Micro-CT analysis of the retrieved implants clearly indicated the synergistic interaction of VEGF with BMP-6 as greater ectopic bone formation was observed in the VEGF plus BMP-6 group as compared to VEGF or BMP-6 alone. In addition, histology of the implants showed enhanced blood vessel formation with VEGF treatments. Conclusion. This study demonstrated the synergistic interaction of VEGF with BMP-6 during osteogenesis in vitro and in vivo. The results indicated that this novel combination of therapeutic growth factors should be investigated further as a potential treatment of osteonecrosis

Introduction. Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are members of the TGF-beta superfamily of growth factors and are known to regulate proliferation and expression of the differentiated phenotype of chondrocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts. To investigate the osteoblastic differentiation gene expressions that contribute to BMP-7 dependent ostogenesis, we performed gene expression profiling of BMP-7-treated mouse bone marrow stromal cells. Methods. D1 cells (mouse bone marrow stromal cells) were cultured in osteogenic differentiation medium (ODM) for 3 days, and then treated with BMP-7 for 24 hr. Total RNA was extracted using Trizol, purified using RNeasy columns. Total RNA was amplified and purified using the Ambion Illumina RNA amplification kit to yield biotinylated cRNA. The data analysis up- and down-regulation developmental processes (anterior/posterior patterning, ectoderm development, embryogenesis, gametogenesis, mesoderm development, other development process, and segment specification) genes expression fold. Results. We detected 18 mRNAs (Id2, Igf2, Pparg, S100a10, Foxn3, Tulp3, Mycbp2, Notch3, Ptk7, Lrp4, Tnfrsf11b, Ogn, Cyr61, Mglap, Akp2, Ltbp4, Ibsp, and Thbs1) that were differentially up-regulated after BMP-7 stimulation. 3 mRNAs (Wars, Adss and Trim35) were differentially down-regulated after BMP-7 stimulation. Conclusion. The data indicate that BMP-7 regulate various developmental processes genes expression during osteoblastic differentiation. Though further studies are needed in relation to each expression gene profiles and osteoblastic differentiation, this information may serve as a point of comparison for osteoblastic differentiation of BMP-7. Furthermore, the data should facilitate the informed use of BMP-7 as a therapeutic agent and tissue engineering tool. Acknowledgement. This work was supported by the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation (KOSEF) grant funded by the Korea government (MEST) (No. R01-2008-000-10089-0)

Introduction

Canonical Wnt inhibitor Sclerostin (SOST) may be a key mechanotransduction regulator.

The morbidity associated with tendinopathy is a costly burden on our health system. Recent investigations in our laboratory have shown that alterations in mechanical stress cause significant changes in tendon expression of key matrix molecules and proteolytic enzymes including the aggrecanase molecules, (e.g. ADAMTS-5). Here, we investigate the biomechanical consequences of such altered tensile stress in tail tendons from mice with and without deletion of the ADAMTS-5 gene. Tail tendons from 12 week old C57BL6 wild type and ADAMTS-5 knock-out mice were immediately snap frozen (ex vivo), or cultured stress deprived for 120 hours in DMEM/10% FCS (eight tendons per group). Material properties including maximum stress, strain and elastic modulus were determined for each tendon in uniaxial tension to failure at a constant strain rate of 1.0 mm/second (10% strain/second) on an Instron 8874 servo-hydraulic testing apparatus. Significant differences between groups were determined with Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance, followed by Mann-Whitney U test with Benjamini-Hochberg post-hoc corrections for multiple comparisons. Stress deprivation for 120 hours led to a significant increase in maximum stress for both the wild type (~150% increase, p = 0.0008) and ADAMTS-5 deficient (~100%, p = 0.0033) mice when compared to ex vivo tendon. Stress deprivation led to a 100% increase in elastic modulus compared to ex vivo for the wild type tendons (p = 0.0033) but failed to increase this parameter in the ADAMTS-5 deficient mice. When the effect of stress deprivation of the ADAMTS-5 deficient mice was directly compared to the wild type stress deprived tendons, a 35% decrease in elastic modulus was found (p = 0.021). We have shown for the first time that deletion of an aggrecanase molecule significantly decreases the material properties of tendon. Alterations in the expression of the aggrecanase molecules may play a role in the development and progression of tendinopathy through their ability to modulate the metabolism of aggrecan [1]. Previous research in our laboratory has shown that aggrecanase expression is markedly up-regulated by stress deprivation. This finding in combination with the results of the present study suggest that the aggrecanase molecules may provide a future therapeutic target for the treatment tendinopathy.

Objectives: Development a giant cell tumor model arising from the mutated mesenchymal cells present in its stroma. This establishes the pathogenic mechanism of giant cell tumor, and allows the evaluation of the possible role of biphosphonates and retinoic acid in medical therapy of giant cell tumor of bone.

Introduction: In previous studies our group has shown that mesenchymal stroma contains mesenchymal cells capable of recruiting osteoclasts, and lacking capacity to undergo osteoblastic differentiation. These cells represent the actual neoplastic component of the tumor. In the current study, an attempt was made to establish a giant cell tumor in an animal model by injection of these cells.

Methods: 6 Balb/C named mice were used. The mice were kept in a laminar flow hood and injected when they were 4 weeks old. The injection was in an intra-osseous location into the distal femur. The cell inoculum consisted of 1 million stromal cells. The cells were derived from a grade III giant cell tumor occurring in the hip joint of a 30 years old woman. The mice were kept for 2 months and than sacrificed.

Results: A lytic lesion similar to that occurring in humans developed. The tumor consisted of stromal cells with interspersed osteoclasts. These were identified as being of host origin by mice-specific monoclonal antibodies. The tumor penetrated the cortex but did not infiltrate the articular cartilage. Metastases were not observed.

Discussion: Giant cell tumor of bone is typified by osteolytic bone destruction mediated by osteoclasts. In previous studies, our group has shown that the proliferation rate of the stromal component correlates closely with prognosis and grade of the tumor. The stromal component was shown to consist of pre-osteoblasts that fail to differentiate into osteoblasts, but instead recruit giant cells (osteoclasts), mediating bone destruction. Addition of retinoic acid in culture induces osteoblastogenesis cells by blocking AP-1. The current study confirms in an animal model that indeed the stromal cells are capable of osteoclast recruitment and bone destruction. This animal model might allow development of medical remedies to this tumor.

Summary Statement

Spinal cord injury is characterised by an inflammatory cascade that leads to neuronal death by neurotoxicity. In a model of spinal cord damage we successfully preserved the number of ventral horn neurons by treatment with interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL1RA) and neurotrophin (NT)-3.