Aims. The aim of this study was to determine the immediate post-fixation stability of a distal tibial fracture fixed with an intramedullary nail using a biomechanical model. This was used as a surrogate for immediate weight-bearing postoperatively. The goal was to help inform postoperative protocols. Methods. A biomechanical model of distal metaphyseal tibial fractures was created using a fourth-generation composite bone model. Three fracture patterns were tested: spiral, oblique, and multifragmented. Each fracture extended to within 4 cm to 5 cm of the plafond. The models were nearly-anatomically reduced and stabilized with an intramedullary nail and three distal locking screws. Cyclic loading was performed to simulate normal gait. Loading was completed in compression at 3,000 N at 1 Hz for a total of 70,000 cycles. Displacement (shortening, coronal and sagittal angulation) was measured at regular intervals. Results. The spiral and oblique fracture patterns withstood simulated weight-bearing with minimal displacement. The multifragmented model had early implant failure with breaking of the distal locking screws. The spiral fracture model shortened by a mean of 0.3 mm (SD 0.2), and developed a mean coronal angulation of 2.0° (SD 1.9°) and a mean sagittal angulation of 1.2° (SD 1.1°). On average, 88% of the shortening, 74% of the change in coronal alignment, and 75% of the change in sagittal alignment occurred in the first 2,500 cycles. No late acceleration of displacement was noted. The oblique fracture model shortened by a mean of 0.2 mm (SD 0.1) and developed a mean coronal angulation of 2.4° (SD 1.6°) and a mean sagittal angulation of 2.6° (SD 1.4°). On average, 44% of the shortening, 39% of the change in coronal alignment, and 79% of the change in sagittal alignment occurred in the first 2,500 cycles. No late acceleration of displacement was noted. Conclusion. For spiral and oblique fracture patterns, simulated weight-bearing resulted in a clinically acceptable degree of displacement. Most displacement occurred early in the test period, and the rate of displacement decreased over time. Based on this model, we offer evidence that early weight-bearing appears safe for well reduced oblique and spiral fractures, but not in multifragmented patterns that have poor bone contact. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(2):294–298

Aims. Due to their radiolucency and favourable mechanical properties, carbon fibre nails may be a preferable alternative to titanium nails for oncology patients. We aim to compare the surgical characteristics and short-term results of patients who underwent intramedullary fixation with either a titanium or carbon fibre nail for pathological long-bone fracture. Methods. This single tertiary-institutional, retrospectively matched case-control study included 72 patients who underwent prophylactic or therapeutic fixation for pathological fracture of the humerus, femur, or tibia with either a titanium (control group, n = 36) or carbon fibre (case group, n = 36) intramedullary nail between 2016 to 2020. Patients were excluded if intramedullary fixation was combined with any other surgical procedure/fixation method. Outcomes included operating time, blood loss, fluoroscopic time, and complications. Fisher’s exact test and Mann-Whitney U test were used for categorical and continuous outcomes, respectively. Results. Patients receiving carbon nails as compared to those receiving titanium nails had higher blood loss (median 150 ml (interquartile range (IQR) 100 to 250) vs 100 ml (IQR 50 to 150); p = 0.042) and longer fluoroscopic time (median 150 seconds (IQR 114 to 182) vs 94 seconds (IQR 58 to 124); p = 0.001). Implant complications occurred in seven patients (19%) in the titanium group versus one patient (3%) in the carbon fibre group (p = 0.055). There were no notable differences between groups with regard to operating time, surgical wound infection, or survival. Conclusion. This pilot study demonstrates a non-inferior surgical and short-term clinical profile supporting further consideration of carbon fibre nails for pathological fracture fixation in orthopaedic oncology patients. Given enhanced accommodation of imaging methods important for oncological surveillance and radiation therapy planning, as well as high tolerances to fatigue stress, carbon fibre implants possess important oncological advantages over titanium implants that merit further prospective investigation. Level of evidence: III, Retrospective study. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(8):648–655

Aims. The primary aim of this study was to identify independent predictors associated with nonunion and delayed union of tibial diaphyseal fractures treated with intramedullary nailing. The secondary aim was to assess the Radiological Union Scale for Tibial fractures (RUST) score as an early predictor of tibial fracture nonunion. Methods. A consecutive series of 647 patients who underwent intramedullary nailing for tibial diaphyseal fractures were identified from a trauma database. Demographic data, comorbidities, smoking status, alcohol consumption, use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and steroid use were documented. Details regarding mechanism of injury, fracture classification, complications, and further surgery were recorded. Nonunion was defined as the requirement for revision surgery to achieve union. Delayed union was defined as a RUST score < 10 at six months postoperatively. Results. There were 41 nonunions (6.3%), of which 13 were infected (31.7%), and 77 delayed unions (11.9%). There were 127 open fractures (19.6%). Adjusting for confounding variables, NSAID use (odds ratio (OR) 3.50; p = 0.042), superficial infection (OR 3.00; p = 0.026), open fractures (OR 5.44; p < 0.001), and high-energy mechanism (OR 2.51; p = 0.040) were independently associated with nonunion. Smoking (OR 1.76; p = 0.034), open fracture (OR 2.82; p = 0.001), and high-energy mechanism (OR 1.81; p = 0.030) were independent predictors associated with delayed union. The RUST score at six-week follow-up was highly predictive of nonunion (sensitivity and specificity of 75%). Conclusion. NSAID use, high-energy mechanisms, open fractures, and superficial infection were independently associated with nonunion in patients with tibial diaphyseal fractures treated with intramedullary nailing. The six-week RUST score may be useful in identifying patients at risk of nonunion. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2021;2(4):227–235

Aims. This study aims to describe a new method that may be used as a supplement to evaluate humeral rotational alignment during intramedullary nail (IMN) insertion using the profile of the perpendicular peak of the greater tuberosity and its relation to the transepicondylar axis. We called this angle the greater tuberosity version angle (GTVA). Methods. This study analyzed 506 cadaveric humeri of adult patients. All humeri were CT scanned using 0.625 × 0.625 × 0.625 mm cubic voxels. The images acquired were used to generate 3D surface models of the humerus. Next, 3D landmarks were automatically calculated on each 3D bone using custom-written C++ software. The anatomical landmarks analyzed were the transepicondylar axis, the humerus anatomical axis, and the peak of the perpendicular axis of the greater tuberosity. Lastly, the angle between the transepicondylar axis and the greater tuberosity axis was calculated and defined as the GTVA. Results. The value of GTVA was 20.9° (SD 4.7°) (95% CI 20.47° to 21.3°). Results of analysis of variance revealed that females had a statistically significant larger angle of 21.95° (SD 4.49°) compared to males, which were found to be 20.49° (SD 4.8°) (p = 0.001). Conclusion. This study identified a consistent relationship between palpable anatomical landmarks, enhancing IMN accuracy by utilizing 3D CT scans and replicating a 20.9° angle from the greater tuberosity to the transepicondylar axis. Using this angle as a secondary reference may help mitigate the complications associated with malrotation of the humerus following IMN. However, future trials are needed for clinical validation. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(10):929–936

Aims. The aim of this study was to investigate if there are differences in outcome between sliding hip screws (SHSs) and intramedullary nails (IMNs) with regard to fracture stability. Methods. We assessed data from 17,341 patients with trochanteric or subtrochanteric fractures treated with SHS or IMN in the Norwegian Hip Fracture Register from 2013 to 2019. Primary outcome measures were reoperations for stable fractures (AO Foundation/Orthopaedic Trauma Association (AO/OTA) type A1) and unstable fractures (AO/OTA type A2, A3, and subtrochanteric fractures). Secondary outcome measures were reoperations for A2, A3, and subtrochanteric fractures individually, one-year mortality, quality of life (EuroQol five-dimension three-level index score), pain (visual analogue scale (VAS)), and satisfaction (VAS) for stable and unstable fractures. Hazard rate ratios (HRRs) for reoperation were calculated using Cox regression analysis with adjustments for age, sex, and American Society of Anesthesiologists score. Results. Reoperation rate was lower after surgery with IMN for unstable fractures one year (HRR 0.82, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.70 to 0.97; p = 0.022) and three years postoperatively (HRR 0.86, 95% CI 0.74 to 0.99; p = 0.036), compared with SHS. For individual fracture types, no clinically significant differences were found. Lower one-year mortality was found for IMN compared with SHS for stable fractures (HRR 0.87; 95% CI 0.78 to 0.96; p = 0.007), and unstable fractures (HRR 0.91, 95% CI 0.84 to 0.98; p = 0.014). Conclusion. This national register-based study indicates a lower reoperation rate for IMN than SHS for unstable trochanteric and subtrochanteric fractures, but not for stable fractures or individual fracture types. The choice of implant may not be decisive to the outcome of treatment for stable trochanteric fractures in terms of reoperation rate. One-year mortality rate for unstable and stable fractures was lower in patients treated with IMN. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(2):274–282

Aims. Using tibial shaft fracture participants from a large, multicentre randomized controlled trial, we investigated if patient and surgical factors were associated with health-related quality of life (HRQoL) at one year post-surgery. Methods. The Study to Prospectively Evaluate Reamed Intramedullary Nails in Patients with Tibial Fractures (SPRINT) trial examined adults with an open or closed tibial shaft fracture who were treated with either reamed or unreamed intramedullary nails. HRQoL was assessed at hospital discharge (for pre-injury level) and at 12 months post-fracture using the Short Musculoskeletal Functional Assessment (SMFA) Dysfunction, SMFA Bother, 36-Item Short Form 36 (SF-36) Physical, and SF-36 Mental Component scores. We used multiple linear regression analysis to determine if baseline and surgical factors, as well as post-intervention procedures within one year of fracture, were associated with these HRQoL outcomes. Significance was set at p < 0.01. We hypothesize that, irrespective of the four measures used, prognosis is guided by both modifiable and non-modifiable factors and that patients do not return to their pre-injury level of function, nor HRQoL. Results. For patient and surgical factors, only pre-injury quality of life and isolated fracture showed a statistical effect on all four HRQoL outcomes, while high-energy injury mechanism, smoking, and race or ethnicity, demonstrated statistical significance for three of the four HRQoL outcomes. Patients who did not require reoperation in response to infection, the need for bone grafts, and/or the need for implant exchanges had statistically superior HRQoL outcomes than those who did require intervention within one year after initial tibial fracture nailing. Conclusion. We identified several baseline patient factors, surgical factors, and post-intervention procedures within one year after intramedullary nailing of a tibial shaft fracture that may influence a patient’s HRQoL. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2021;2(1):22–32

Aims. The primary aim of this study was to compare surgical methods (sliding hip screw (SHS) vs intramedullary nailing (IMN)) for trochanteric hip fracture in relation to death within 120 days after surgery and return to independent living. The secondary aim was to assess whether the associations between surgical method and death or ability to return to independent living varied depending on fracture subtype or other patient characteristics. Methods. A total of 27,530 individuals from the Swedish Hip Fracture Register RIKSHÖFT (SHR) aged ≥ 70 years, admitted to hospital between 1 January 2014 and 31 December 2019 with trochanteric hip fracture, were included. Within this cohort, 12,041 individuals lived independently at baseline, had follow-up information in the SHR, and were thus investigated for return to independent living. Death within 120 days after surgery was analyzed using Cox regression with SHS as reference and adjusted for age and fracture type. Return to independent living was analyzed using logistic regression adjusted for age and fracture type. Analyses were repeated after stratification by fracture type, age, and sex. Results. Overall, 2,171 patients (18%) who were operated with SHS and 2,704 patients (18%) who were operated with IMN died within 120 days after surgery. Adjusted Cox regression revealed no difference in death within 120 days for the whole group (hazard ratio 0.97 (95% CI 0.91 to 1.03)), nor after stratification by fracture type. In total, 3,714 (66%) patients who were operated with SHS and 4,147 (64%) patients who were operated with IMN had returned to independent living at follow-up. There was no significant difference in return to independent living for the whole group (odds ratio 0.95 (95% CI 0.87 to 1.03)), nor after stratification by fracture type. Conclusion. No overall difference was observed in death within 120 days or return to independent living following surgery for trochanteric hip fracture, depending on surgical method (SHS vs IMN) in this recent Swedish cohort, but there was a suggested benefit for SHS in subgroups of patients. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(10):843–850

Aims. The purpose of the study was to investigate whether closed intramedullary (IM) nailing with percutaneous cement augmentation is better than conventional closed nailing at relieving pain and suppressing tumours in patients with metastases of the femur and humerus. Patients and Methods. A total of 43 patients (27 men, 16 women, mean age 63.7 years, standard deviation (. sd. ) 12.2; 21 to 84) underwent closed IM nailing with cement augmentation for long bone metastases. A further 27 patients, who underwent conventional closed IM nailing, served as controls. Pain was assessed using a visual analogue scale (VAS) score pre-operatively (pre-operative VAS), one week post-operatively (immediate post-operative VAS), and at six weeks post-operatively (follow-up post-operative VAS). Progression of the tumour was evaluated in subgroups of patients using F-18-fludeoxyglucose (F-18-FDG) positron emission tomography (PET)/computed tomography (CT) and/or bone scintigraphy (BS), at a mean of 8.8 and 7.2 months post-operatively, respectively. Results. The mean pain scores of patients who underwent closed nailing with cement augmentation were significantly lower than those of the control patients post-operatively (immediate post-operative VAS: 3.8, . sd. 0.9 versus 6.0, . sd. 0.9; follow-up post-operative VAS: 3.3, . sd. 2.5 versus 6.6, . sd. 2.2; all p < 0.001). The progression of the metastasis was suppressed in 50% (10/20) of patients who underwent closed nailing with augmentation, but in only 8% (1/13) of those in the control group. Conclusion. Percutaneous cement augmentation of closed IM nailing improves the relief of pain and limits the progression of the tumour in patients with metastases to the long bones. Take home message: Percutaneous cement augmentation while performing closed IM nailing has some advantages for long bone metastases. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:703–9

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to compare the results and complications of tibial lengthening over an intramedullary nail with treatment using the traditional Ilizarov method. Methods. In this matched case study, 16 adult patients underwent 19 tibial lengthening over nails (LON) procedures. For the matched case group, 17 patients who underwent 19 Ilizarov tibial lengthenings were retrospectively matched to the LON group. Results. The mean external fixation time for the LON group was 2.6 months and for the matched case group was 7.6 months. The mean lengthening amounts for the LON and the matched case groups were 5.2 cm and 4.9 cm, respectively. The radiographic consolidation time in the LON group was 6.6 months and in the matched case group 7.6 months. Using a clinical and radiographic outcome score that was designed for this study, the outcome was determined to be excellent in 17 and good in two patients for the LON group. The outcome was excellent in 14 and good in five patients in the matched case group. The LON group had increased blood loss and increased cost. The LON group had four deep infections; the matched case group did not have any deep infections. Conclusions. The outcomes in the LON group were comparable with the outcomes in the matched case group. The LON group had a shorter external fixation time but experienced increased blood loss, increased cost, and four cases of deep infection. The advantage of reducing external fixation treatment time may outweigh these disadvantages in patients who have a healthy soft-tissue envelope. Cite this article: J. E. Herzenberg. Tibial lengthening over intramedullary nails: A matched case comparison with Ilizarov tibial lengthening. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:1–10. doi: 10.1302/2046-3758.51.2000577

Aims. A lack of supporting clinical studies have been published to determine the ideal length of intramedullary nail in fixation of trochanteric fractures of the hip. Nevertheless, there has been a trend to use shorter intramedullary nails for the internal fixation of trochanteric hip fractures. Our aim was to determine if the length of nail affected the outcome. Methods. We randomized 229 patients with a trochanteric hip fracture between two implants: a ‘standard’ nail of 220 mm and a shorter nail of 175 mm, which had decreased proximal angulation (4° vs 7°) and a reduced diameter at the level of the lesser trochanter. Patients were followed up for one year by a nurse blinded to the type of implant used to determine if there were differences in mobility and pain with two nail designs. Pain was assessed on a scale of 1 (none) to 8 (severe and constant) and mobility on a scale of 1 (full mobility) to 9 (immobile). Results. The shorter nail did not require any reaming of the femur and was quicker to insert (mean difference 5.1 minutes; p < 0.001, 95% confidence interval (CI) of the difference 3.16 to 7.04). Those treated by the shorter nail were less mobile (mean difference in reduction in mobility score at one year 0.80; p = 0.007, 95% CI 1.38 to 0.22). In addition, there was a trend toward greater residual pain for those treated with the shorter nail, although this was not statistically significant (mean difference in pain score at one year 0.24; p = 0.064, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.49). Conclusion. These results suggest that the increasing use of this very short intramedullary nail with its design modification may not be appropriate. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(3):394–399

Aims. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between the type of operation used to treat a trochanteric fracture of the hip and 30-day mortality. Patients and Methods. Data on 82 990 patients from the National Hip Fracture Database were analyzed using generalized linear models with incremental case-mix adjustment for patient, non-surgical and surgical characteristics, and socioeconomic factors. Results. The use of short and long intramedullary nails was associated with an increase in 30-day mortality (adjusted odds ratio (OR) 1.125, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.040 to 1.218; p = 0.004) compared with the use of sliding hip screws (12.5% increase). If this were causative, it would represent 98 excess deaths over the four-year period of the study and one excess death would be caused by treating 112 patients with an intramedullary nail rather than a sliding hip screw. Conclusion. There is a 12.5% increase in the risk of 30-day mortality associated with the use of an intramedullary nail compared with a sliding hip screw in the treatment of a trochanteric fractures of the hip

Aims. This study aimed to compare mortality in trochanteric AO/OTA A1 and A2 fractures treated with an intramedullary nail (IMN) or sliding hip screw (SHS). The primary endpoint was 30-day mortality, with secondary endpoints at 0 to 1, 2 to 7, 8 to 30, 90, and 365 days. Methods. We analyzed data from 26,393 patients with trochanteric AO/OTA A1 and A2 fractures treated with IMNs (n = 9,095) or SHSs (n = 17,298) in the Norwegian Hip Fracture Register (January 2008 to December 2020). Exclusions were made for patients aged < 60 years, pathological fractures, pre-2008 operations, contralateral hip fractures, fractures other than trochanteric A1/A2, and treatments other than IMNs or SHSs. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analyses adjusted for type of fracture, age, sex, cognitive impairment, American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade, and time period were conducted, along with calculations for number needed to harm (NNH). Results. In unadjusted analyses, there was no significant difference between IMN and SHS patient survival at 30 days (91.8% vs 91.1%; p = 0.083) or 90 days (85.4% vs 84.5%; p = 0.065), but higher one-year survival for IMNs (74.5% vs 73.3%; p = 0.031) compared with SHSs. After adjustments, no significant difference in 30-day mortality was found (hazard rate ratio (HRR) 0.94 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.86 to 1.02(; p = 0.146). IMNs exhibited higher mortality at 0 to 1 days (HRR 1.63 (95% CI 1.13 to 2.34); p = 0.009) compared with SHSs, with a NNH of 556, but lower mortality at 8 to 30 days (HRR 0.89 (95% CI 0.80 to 1.00); p = 0.043). No differences were observed in mortality at 2 to 7 days (HRR 0.94 (95% CI 0.79 to 1.11); p = 0.434), 90 days (HRR 0.95 (95% CI 0.89 to 1.02); p = 0.177), or 365 days (HRR 0.97 (95% CI 0.92 to 1.02); p = 0.192). Conclusion. This study found no difference in 30-day mortality between IMNs and SHSs. However, IMNs were associated with a higher mortality at 0 to 1 days and a marginally lower mortality at 8 to 30 days compared with SHSs. The observed differences in mortality were small and should probably not guide choice of treatment. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(6):603–612

We report the results of using a combination of fixator-assisted nailing with lengthening over an intramedullary nail in patients with tibial deformity and shortening. Between 1997 and 2007, 13 tibiae in nine patients with a mean age of 25.4 years (17 to 34) were treated with a unilateral external fixator for acute correction of deformity, followed by lengthening over an intramedullary nail with a circular external fixator applied at the same operating session. At the end of the distraction period locking screws were inserted through the intramedullary nail and the external fixator was removed. The mean amount of lengthening was 5.9 cm (2 to 8). The mean time of external fixation was 90 days (38 to 265). The mean external fixation index was 15.8 days/cm (8.9 to 33.1) and the mean bone healing index was 38 days/cm (30 to 60). One patient developed an equinus deformity which responded to stretching and bracing. Another developed a drop foot due to a compartment syndrome, which was treated by fasciotomy. It recovered in three months. Two patients required bone grafting for poor callus formation. We conclude that the combination of fixator-assisted nailing with lengthening over an intramedullary nail can reduce the overall external fixation time and prevent fractures and deformity of the regenerated bone

We present the results of 90 consecutive children with displaced fractures of the forearm treated by elastic stable intramedullary nailing with a mean follow-up of 6.6 months (2.0 to 17.6). Eight (9%) had open fractures and 77 (86%) had sustained a fracture of both bones. The operations were performed by orthopaedic trainees in 78 patients (86%). All fractures healed at a mean of 2.9 months (1.1 to 8.7). There was one case of delayed union of an ulnar fracture. An excellent or good functional outcome was achieved in 76 patients (84%). There was no statistical difference detected when the grade of operating surgeon, age of the patient and the diaphyseal level of the fracture were correlated with the outcome. A limited open reduction was required in 40 fractures (44%). Complications included seven cases of problematic wounds, two transient palsies of the superficial radial nerve and one case each of malunion and a post-operative compartment syndrome. At final follow-up, all children were pain-free and without limitation of sport and play activities. Our findings indicate that the functional outcome following paediatric fractures of the forearm treated by elastic stable intramedullary nailing is good, without the need for anatomical restoration of the radial bow

We compared the outcome of closed intramedullary nailing with minimally invasive plate osteosynthesis using a percutaneous locked compression plate in patients with a distal metaphyseal fracture in a prospective study. A total of 85 patients were randomised to operative stabilisation either by a closed intramedullary nail (44) or by minimally invasive osteosynthesis with a compression plate (41). Pre-operative variables included the patients’ age and the side and pattern of the fracture. Peri-operative variables were the operating time and the radiation time. Postoperative variables were wound problems, the time to union of the fracture, the functional American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle surgery score and removal of hardware. We found no significant difference in the pre-operative variables or in the time to union in the two groups. However, the mean radiation time and operating time were significantly longer in the locked compression plate group (3.0 vs 2.12 minutes, p < 0.001, and 97.9 vs 81.2 minutes, p < 0.001, respectively). After one year, all the fractures had united. Patients who had intramedullary nailing had a higher mean pain score, but better function, alignment and total American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle surgery scores, although the differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.234, p = 0.157, p = 0.897, p = 0.177 respectively). Three (6.8%) patients in the intramedullary nailing group and six (14.6%) in the locked compression plate group showed delayed wound healing, and 37 (84.1%) in the former group and 38 (92.7%) in the latter group expressed a wish to have the implant removed. We conclude that both closed intramedullary nailing and a percutaneous locked compression plate can be used safely to treat Orthopaedic Trauma Association type-43A distal metaphyseal fractures of the tibia. However, closed intramedullary nailing has the advantage of a shorter operating and radiation time and easier removal of the implant. We therefore prefer closed intramedullary nailing for patients with these fractures

The ideal form of fixation for displaced, extra-articular fractures of the distal tibia remains controversial. In the UK, open reduction and internal fixation with locking-plates and intramedullary nailing are the two most common forms of treatment. Both techniques provide reliable fixation but both are associated with specific complications. There is little information regarding the functional recovery following either procedure. We performed a randomised pilot trial to determine the functional outcome of 24 adult patients treated with either a locking-plate (n = 12) or an intramedullary nailing (n = 12). At six months, there was an adjusted difference of 13 points in the Disability Rating Index in favour of the intramedullary nail. However, this was not statistically significant in this pilot trial (p = 0.498). A total of seven patients required further surgery in the locking-plate group and one in the intramedullary nail group. This study suggests that there may be clinically relevant, functional differences in patients treated with nail versus locking-plate fixation for fractures of the distal tibia and differences in related complications. Further trials are required to confirm the findings of this pilot investigation

We reviewed 27 diabetic patients who sustained a tibial fracture treated with a reamed intramedullary nail and compared them with a control group who did not have diabetes. There were 23 closed fractures and four were open. Union was delayed until after six months in 12 of the 23 (52%) diabetic patients with closed fractures and ten of the 23 (43%) control patients (p = 0.768). In two patients with diabetes (9%), closed tibial fractures failed to unite and required exchange nailing, whereas all closed fractures in the control group healed without further surgery (p = 0.489). In both the diabetic and control groups with closed fractures two patients (9%) developed superficial infections. There were two (9%) deep infections in diabetic patients with closed fractures, but none in the control group (p = 0.489). Overall, there was no significant difference in the rate of complications between the diabetic patients and the control group, but there was a tendency for more severe infections in patients with diabetes

Distraction osteogenesis (callotasis) has been widely used in patients with limb-length inequality or massive bone defects. This procedure, however, may be associated with a high incidence of physical and psychosocial complications. Callotasis telescoping on a locked intramedullary nail has been used to shorten the period of external fixation. Little attention has been given to the use of locked intramedullary nails in the treatment of complications after callotasis. Between 1990 and 1999, we used locked intramedullary nailing in 27 patients for the treatment of complications after distraction osteogenesis. There were 17 men and ten women with a mean age of 33.2 years (16 to 66). The nail was inserted at a mean of 3.4 weeks (0 to 15) after removal of the external fixator. Simultaneous autogenous bone grafting and soft-tissue reconstruction were also undertaken in seven and two patients, respectively. There was consolidation of the callus or docking site in all patients at a mean of 6.4 months (2 to 14) after surgery. The mean shortening of the callus was 0.7 cm (0 to 2.5). Two patients had infection at the site of a distal screw which resolved after removal of the nail. In 17 patients the nail was removed at a mean of 26 months after its insertion. Locked intramedullary nails are useful in treating complications after distraction osteogenesis in skeletally mature patients. The risk of infection should be borne in mind

Malpositioning of the trochanteric entry point during the introduction of an intramedullary nail may cause iatrogenic fracture or malreduction. Although the optimal point of insertion in the coronal plane has been well described, positioning in the sagittal plane is poorly defined. . The paired femora from 374 cadavers were placed both in the anatomical position and in internal rotation to neutralise femoral anteversion. A marker was placed at the apparent apex of the greater trochanter, and the lateral and anterior offsets from the axis of the femoral shaft were measured on anteroposterior and lateral photographs. Greater trochanteric morphology and trochanteric overhang were graded. The mean anterior offset of the apex of the trochanter relative to the axis of the femoral shaft was 5.1 mm (. sd. 4.0) and 4.6 mm (. sd. 4.2) for the anatomical and neutralised positions, respectively. The mean lateral offset of the apex was 7.1 mm (. sd. 4.6) and 6.4 mm (. sd. 4.6), respectively. Placement of the entry position at the apex of the greater trochanter in the anteroposterior view does not reliably centre an intramedullary nail in the sagittal plane. Based on our findings, the site of insertion should be about 5 mm posterior to the apex of the trochanter to allow for its anterior offset. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1274–81

The humerus is a common site for skeletal metastases in the adult. Surgical stabilisation of such lesions is often necessary to relieve pain and restore function. These procedures are essentially palliative and should therefore provide effective relief from pain for the remainder of the patient’s life without the need for further surgical intervention. We report a retrospective analysis of 35 patients (37 nails) with symptomatic metastases in the shaft of the humerus which were treated by locked, antegrade nailing. There were 27 true fractures (73.0%) and ten painful deposits (27.0%). Relief from pain was excellent in four (11.4%), good in 29 (82.9%) and fair in two (5.7%) on discharge. Function was improved in all but one patient. One case of palsy of the radial nerve was noted. The mean postoperative survival was 7.1 months (0.2 to 45.5) which emphasises the poor prognosis in this group of patients. There were no failures of fixation and no case in which further surgery was required. Antegrade intramedullary nailing is an effective means of stabilising the humerus for the palliative treatment of metastases. It relieves pain and restores function to the upper limb with low attendant morbidity

Several techniques are available for the treatment of displaced fractures of the neck of the radius in children. We report our experience in 14 children treated by indirect reduction and fixation using an elastic stable intramedullary nail. The patients were followed up for a mean of 28 months. One developed asymptomatic avascular necrosis. The rest had excellent results. One had a neuropraxia of the posterior interosseous nerve, which recovered within six weeks. We advocate elastic stable intramedullary nailing for the closed reduction and fixation of these fractures in children

Flexible intramedullary nailing is gaining popularity as an effective method of treating long-bone fractures in children. We retrospectively reviewed the records and radiographs of 56 unstable fractures of the tibia in 54 children treated between March 1997 and May 2005. All were followed up for at least two months after the removal of the nails. Of the 56 tibial fractures, 13 were open. There were no nonunions. The mean time to clinical and radiological union was ten weeks. Complications included residual angulation of the tibia, leg-length discrepancy, deep infection and failures of fixation. All achieved an excellent functional outcome. We conclude that flexible intramedullary fixation is an easy and effective method of management of both open and closed unstable fractures of the tibia in children

Intracompartmental pressures of 66 patients with 67 tibial fractures treated by intramedullary nailing were monitored. There was no difference in the pressures recorded between the different Tscherne fracture types, between open and closed fractures, between low energy and high energy injuries or between fractures dealt with early and those not treated until more than 24 hours after injury. The overall incidence of acute compartment syndrome was 1.5%. No patient developed any sequelae of compartment syndrome. We conclude that intramedullary nailing does not increase the incidence of acute compartment syndrome in tibial fractures and that delay does not reduce the risk of raised compartment pressures

The stress response to trauma is the summation of the physiological response to the injury (the ‘first hit’) and by the response to any on-going physiological disturbance or subsequent trauma surgery (the ‘second hit’). Our animal model was developed in order to allow the study of each of these components of the stress response to major trauma. High-energy, comminuted fracture of the long bones and severe soft-tissue injuries in this model resulted in a significant tropotropic (depressor) cardiovascular response, transcardiac embolism of medullary contents and activation of the coagulation system. Subsequent stabilisation of the fractures using intramedullary nails did not significantly exacerbate any of these responses

Aims. Hindfoot arthrodesis with retrograde intramedullary nailing has been described as a surgical strategy to reconstruct deformities of the ankle and hindfoot in patients with Charcot arthropathy. This study presents case series of Charcot arthropathy patients treated with two different retrograde intramedullary straight compression nails in order to reconstruct the hindfoot and assess the results over a mid-term follow-up. Patients and Methods. We performed a retrospective analysis of 18 consecutive patients and 19 operated feet with Charcot arthropathy who underwent a hindfoot arthrodesis using a retrograde intramedullary compression nail. Patients were ten men and eight women with a mean age of 63.43 years (38.5 to 79.8). We report the rate of limb salvage, complications requiring additional surgery, and fusion rate in both groups. The mean duration of follow-up was 46.36 months (37 to 70). Results. The limb salvage rate was 16 of 19 limbs. Three patients had to undergo below-knee amputation due to persistent infection followed by osteomyelitis resistant to parenteral antibiotic therapy and repeated debridement. Complications including infection, hardware removal, nonunion, and persistent ulcers requiring further intervention were also observed. Postoperative functional scores revealed significant improvement compared with preoperative scores on American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) – Hindfoot scale, Foot Function Index (FFI), visual analogue scale (VAS), and Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS). Conclusion. The use of retrograde intramedullary compression nail results in good rates of limb salvage when used for hindfoot reconstruction in patients with Charcot arthropathy. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:190–6

We report a retrospective study over five years to determine the incidence of infection and nonunion after intramedullary nailing in fractures of 214 long bones; 122 femoral, 75 tibial and 17 humeral. The indications for nailing were trauma (n = 161), pathological fracture (n = 30) and nonunion (n = 23). There were 30 open fractures. The overall rates of deep infection and nonunion were 3.8% and 14.2%, respectively. Using multiple logistic regression analysis, we determined the relationships between deep infection and nonunion and the pre- and peri-operative factors of age, ASA score, indication for nailing, the use of reaming, the use of antibiotics, whether the fracture was open and the operating time. Open fractures were found to be significantly associated with deep infection. The length of the operation may also affect the outcome. Opening of the fracture at the time of surgery and the ASA score were found to be significantly associated with the development of nonunion after intramedullary nailing. We have compared our findings with previously published data from large teaching hospital units

Aim. The aim of this study was to compare the cost-effectiveness of intramedullary nail fixation and ‘locking’ plate fixation in the treatment of extra-articular fractures of the distal tibia. Patients and Methods. An economic evaluation was conducted from the perspective of the United Kingdom National Health Service (NHS) and personal social services (PSS), based on evidence from the Fixation of Distal Tibia Fractures (UK FixDT) multicentre parallel trial. Data from 321 patients were available for analysis. Costs were collected prospectively over the 12-month follow-up period using trial case report forms and participant-completed questionnaires. Cost-effectiveness was reported in terms of incremental cost per quality adjusted life year (QALY) gained, and net monetary benefit. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to test the robustness of cost-effectiveness estimates. Results. Mean NHS and PSS costs were significantly lower for patients treated with an intramedullary nail than for those treated with a locking plate (-£970, 95% confidence interval (CI) -1685 to -256; p = 0.05). There was a small increase in QALYs gained in the nail fixation group (0.01, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.06; p = 0.52). The probability of cost-effectiveness for nail fixation exceeded 90% at cost-effectiveness thresholds as low as £15 000 per additional QALY. The cost-effectiveness results remained robust to several sensitivity analyses. Conclusion. This trial-based economic evaluation suggests that nail fixation is a cost-effective alternative to locking plate fixation. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:624–33

Elastic stable intramedullary nailing (ESIN) is generally acknowledged to be the treatment of choice for displaced diaphyseal femoral fractures in children over the age of three years, although complication rates of up to 50% are described. Pre-bending the nails is recommended, but there are no published data to support this. Using synthetic bones and a standardised simulated fracture, we performed biomechanical testing to determine the influence on the stability of the fracture of pre-bending the nails before implantation. Standard ESIN was performed on 24 synthetic femoral models with a spiral fracture. In eight cases the nails were inserted without any pre-bending, in a further eight cases they were pre-bent to 30° and in the last group of eight cases they were pre-bent to 60°. Mechanical testing revealed that pre-bending to 60° produced a significant increase in the stiffness or stability of the fracture. Pre-bending to 60° showed a significant positive influence on the stiffness compared with unbent nails. Pre-bending to 30° improved stiffness only slightly. These findings validate the recommendations for pre-bending, but the degree of pre-bend should exceed 30°. Adopting higher degrees of pre-bending should improve stability in spiral fractures and reduce the complications of varus deformity and shortening

We reviewed the results of the treatment of 30 tibial fractures with minor to severe bone loss in 29 patients by early soft-tissue and bony debridement followed by primary locked intramedullary nailing. Subsequent definitive closure was obtained within the first 48 hours usually with a soft-tissue flap, and followed by bone-grafting procedures which were delayed for six to eight weeks after the primary surgery. The time to fracture union and the eventual functional outcome were related to the severity and extent of bone loss. Twenty-nine fractures were soundly united at a mean of 53.4 weeks, with delayed amputation in only one patient. Poor functional outcome and the occurrence of complications were usually due to a departure from the standard protocol for primary management. We conclude that the protocol produces satisfactory results in the management of these difficult fractures, and that intramedullary nailing offers considerable practical advantages over other methods of primary bone stabilisation

Aims. The aim of this study was to investigate whether clinical and radiological outcomes after intramedullary nailing of displaced fractures of the fifth metacarpal neck using a single thick Kirschner wire (K-wire) are noninferior to those of technically more demanding fixation with two thinner dual wires. Patients and Methods. This was a multicentre, parallel group, randomized controlled noninferiority trial conducted at 12 tertiary trauma centres in Germany. A total of 290 patients with acute displaced fractures of the fifth metacarpal neck were randomized to either intramedullary single-wire (n = 146) or dual-wire fixation (n = 144). The primary outcome was the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) questionnaire six months after surgery, with a third of the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) used as the noninferiority threshold. Secondary outcomes were pain, health-related quality of life (EuroQol five-dimensional questionnaire (EQ-5D)), radiological measures, functional deficits, and complications. Results. Overall, 151/290 of patients (52%) completed the six months of follow-up, leaving 83 patients in the single-wire group and 68 patients in the dual-wire group. In the modified intention-to-treat analysis set, mean DASH scores six months after surgery were 3.8 (. sd. 7.0) and 4.4 (. sd. 9.4), respectively. With multiple imputation (n = 288), mean DASH scores were estimated at 6.3 (. sd. 8.7) and 7.0 (. sd. 10.0). Upper (1 - 2α)) confidence limits consistently remained below the noninferiority margin of 3.0 points in the DASH instrument. While there was a statistically nonsignificant trend towards a higher rate of shortening and rotational malalignment in the single wire group, no statistically significant differences were observed across groups in any secondary outcome measure. Conclusion. A single thick K-wire is sufficient for intramedullary fixation of acute displaced subcapital fractures of the fifth metacarpal neck. The less technically demanding single-wire technique produces noninferior clinical and radiological outcomes compared with the dual-wire approach. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:1263–1271

Conventional methods of treating ankle fractures in the elderly are associated with high rates of complication. We describe the results of treating these injuries in 48 frail elderly patients with a long calcaneotalotibial nail.

The mean age of the group was 82 years (61 to 96) and 41 (85%) were women. All were frail, with multiple medical comorbidities and their mean American Society of Anaesthesiologists score was 3 (3 to 4). None could walk independently before their operation. All the fractures were displaced and unstable; the majority (94%, 45 of 48) were low-energy injuries and 40% (19 of 48) were open.

The overall mortality at six months was 35%. Of the surviving patients, 90% returned to their pre-injury level of function. The mean pre- and post-operative Olerud and Molander questionnaire scores were 62 and 57 respectively. Complications included superficial infection (4%, two of 48); deep infection (2%, one of 48); a broken or loose distal locking screw (6%, three of 48); valgus malunion (4%, two of 48); and one below-knee amputation following an unsuccessful vascular operation. There were no cases of nonunion, nail breakage or peri-prosthetic fracture.

A calcaneotalotibial nail is an excellent device for treating an unstable fracture of the ankle in the frail elderly patient. It allows the patient to mobilise immediately and minimises the risk of bone or wound problems. A long nail which crosses the isthmus of the tibia avoids the risk of peri-prosthetic fracture associated with shorter devices.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:817–22.

Using human cadaver specimens, we investigated the role of supplementary fibular plating in the treatment of distal tibial fractures using an intramedullary nail. Fibular plating is thought to improve stability in these situations, but has been reported to have increased soft-tissue complications and to impair union of the fracture. We proposed that multidirectional locking screws provide adequate stability, making additional fibular plating unnecessary. A distal tibiofibular osteotomy model performed on matched fresh-frozen lower limb specimens was stabilised with reamed nails using conventional biplanar distal locking (CDL) or multidirectional distal locking (MDL) options with and without fibular plating. Rotational stiffness was assessed under a constant axial force of 150 N and a superimposed torque of ± 5 Nm. Total movement, and neutral zone and fracture gap movement were analysed. In the CDL group, fibular plating improved stiffness at the tibial fracture site, albeit to a small degree (p = 0.013). In the MDL group additional fibular plating did not increase the stiffness. The MDL nail without fibular plating was significantly more stable than the CDL nail with an additional fibular plate (p = 0.008). These findings suggest that additional fibular plating does not improve stability if a multidirectional distal locking intramedullary nail is used, and is therefore unnecessary if not needed to aid reduction. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:385–9

We compared the complications and outcome of tibial lengthening using the Ilizarov method with and without the use of a supplementary intramedullary nail. In a retrospective case-matched series assembled from 176 patients with tibial lengthening, we matched 52 patients (26 pairs, group A with nail and group B without) according to the following criteria in order of importance: 1) difference in amount of lengthening (± 2 cm); 2) percentage difference in lengthening (± 5%); 3) difference in patient’s age (± seven years); 4) aetiology of the shortening, and 5) level of difficulty in obtaining the correction. The outcome was evaluated using the external fixator index, the healing index and an outcome score according to the criteria of Paley. It was found that some complications were specific to group A or B respectively, but others were common to both groups. The outcome was generally better in lengthenings with a nail, although there was a higher incidence of rectifiable equinus deformity in these patients

1. Distal migration of a femoral intramedullary nail is described in seven patients. Previous reports of proximal and distal migration are reviewed. 2. Factors predisposing to this complication are infection, incorrect nail size, comminution of the fracture and involvement of the medullary isthmus

Distraction osteogenesis is widely used for leg lengthening, but often requires a long period of external fixation which carries risks of pin-track sepsis, malalignment, stiffness of the joint and late fracture of the regenerate. We present the results of 20 cases in which, in an attempt to reduce the rate of complications, a combination of external fixation and intramedullary nailing was used. The mean gain in length was 4.7 cm (2 to 8.6). The mean time of external fixation was 20 days per centimetre gain in length. All distracted segments healed spontaneously without refracture or malalignment. There were three cases of deep infection, two of which occurred in patients who had had previous open fractures of the bone which was being lengthened. All resolved with appropriate treatment. This method allows early rehabilitation, with a rapid return of knee movement. There is a lower rate of complications than occurs when external fixation is used on its own. The time of external fixation is shorter than in other methods of leg lengthening. The high risk of infection calls for caution

Limb lengthening by callus distraction and external fixation has a high rate of complications. We describe our experience using an intramedullary nail (Fitbone) which contains a motorised and programmable sliding mechanism for limb lengthening and bone transport. Between 2001 and 2004 we lengthened 13 femora and 11 tibiae in ten patients (seven men and three women) with a mean age of 32 years (21 to 47) using this nail. The indications for operation were short stature in six patients and developmental or acquired disorders in the rest. The mean lengthening achieved was 40 mm (27 to 60). The mean length of stay in hospital was seven days (5 to 9). The mean healing index was 35 days/cm (18.8 to 70.9). There were no cases of implant-related infection or malunion

The risk of articular penetration during tibial nailing is well known, but the incidence of unrecognised damage to joint cartilage has not been described. We have identified this complication in the treatment of tibial fractures, described the anatomical structures at risk and examined the most appropriate site of entry for tibial nailing in relation to the shape of the bone, the design of the nail and the surgical approach. We studied the relationship between the intra-articular structures of the knee and the entry point used for nailing in 54 tibiae from cadavers. The results showed that the safe zone in some bones is smaller than the size of standard reamers and the proximal part of some nails. The structures at risk are the anterior horns of the medial and lateral menisci, the anterior part of the medial and lateral plateaux and the ligamentum transversum. This was confirmed by observations made after nailing 12 pairs of cadaver knees. A retrospective radiological analysis of 30 patients who had undergone tibial nailing identified eight at risk according to the entry point and the size of the nail. Unrecognised articular penetration and damage during surgery were confirmed in four. Although intramedullary nailing has been shown to be a successful method for treating fractures of the tibia, one of the most common problems after bony union is pain in the knee. Unrecognised intra-articular injury of the knee may be one cause of this

We report the use of Grosse-Kempf reamed intramedullary nailing in the treatment of 41 Gustilo type II and III open tibial fractures. The union times and infection rates were similar to those previously reported for similar fractures treated by external skeletal fixation, but the incidence of malunion was less and fewer required bone grafting. The role of exchange nailing is discussed and a treatment protocol is presented for the management of delayed union and nonunion

Aims

This study evaluated variation in the surgical treatment of stable (A1) and unstable (A2) trochanteric hip fractures among an international group of orthopaedic surgeons, and determined the influence of patient, fracture, and surgeon characteristics on choice of implant (intramedullary nailing (IMN) versus sliding hip screw (SHS)).

As there is little information on the factors that influence fracture union following intramedullary nailing of the tibia we retrospectively investigated patient-, injury- and treatment-related factors in 161 patients with closed or grade I open fractures of the tibial diaphysis. The patients were reviewed until clinical and radiological evidence of union at a mean of 13.3 months (4 to 60). Multivariate statistical analysis using a Cox proportional hazards model showed that the risk of failure of union increased by 2.38 times for highly comminuted fractures, by 3.14 times when nail dynamisation was applied, and by 1.65 times when the locking screws failed. In fractures with no or only minimal comminution the risk of nonunion increased if the post-reduction gap was ≥ 3 mm

We reviewed 63 patients with fractures of the distal tibial metaphysis, with or without minimally displaced extension into the ankle joint. The fractures had been caused by two distinct mechanisms, either a direct bending force or a twisting injury. This influenced the pattern of the fracture and its time to union. All fractures were managed by statically locked intramedullary nailing, with some modifications of the procedure used for diaphyseal fractures. There were few intra-operative complications. At a mean of 46 months, all but five patients had a satisfactory functional outcome. The poor outcomes were associated with either technical error or the presence of other injuries. We conclude that closed intramedullary nailing is a safe and effective method of managing these fractures

The case reports of four patients with breakage of the intramedullary nail of the femur are presented. In all four patients the nail broke after consolidation of the fracture of the femoral shaft. All the nails broke at the same place: the junction between the round cross-section and the cloverleaf cross-section

1. A method of hip fusion with the aid of a straight intramedullary nail through the ilium and the femur is presented. 2. If properly done, no external fixation is necessary and the patient can be allowed up with crutches ten days after the operation. 3. The method has been used on eighteen hips between 1958 and 1960. There was one case of delayed union due to faulty technique and one case of exacerbation of an old tuberculous infection. Otherwise the follow-up study of the patients revealed good bony fusion in all cases, with no pain in the back or knee

Fractures of the femur are the most incapacitating fractures in children. Conservative treatment necessitates a long stay in hospital for traction and subsequent immobilisation in an uncomfortable cast. This treatment is not well tolerated, especially in adolescents. Moreover, near the end of growth, accurate reduction is necessary, as malunion is no longer correctable by growth. Stable elastic intramedullary nailing uses two flexible nails which are introduced percutaneously either through the lower metaphysis or the subtrochanteric area. This technique does not disturb the healing of the fracture. The elasticity of the device allows slight movement at the fracture site which favours union. Reduction and stabilisation are adequate and the operative risk is very low. A cast is not required, functional recovery is rapid and the patient is allowed to walk with crutches after seven to ten days according to the type of fracture. This technique is very efficient in adolescents and can be used after the age of seven years when conservative treatment is unsuccessful

We describe a patient with fractures of both bones of the forearm in whom flexible intramedullary nail fixation of the radius alone led to ulnar malunion and a symptomatic distal radio-ulnar joint subluxation. This was successfully treated by ulnar osteotomy

We made a prospective study of 208 patients with tibial fractures treated by reamed intramedullary nailing. Of these, 11 (5.3%) developed dysfunction of the peroneal nerve with no evidence of a compartment syndrome. The patients with this complication were significantly younger (mean age 25.6 years) and most had closed fractures of the forced-varus type with relatively minor soft-tissue damage. The fibula was intact in three, fractured in the distal or middle third in seven, with only one fracture in the proximal third. Eight of the 11 patients showed a ‘dropped hallux’ syndrome, with weakness of extensor hallucis longus and numbness in the first web space, but no clinical involvement of extensor digitorum longus or tibialis anterior. This was confirmed by nerve-conduction studies in three of the eight patients. There was good recovery of muscle function within three to four months in all cases, but after one year three patients still had some residual tightness of extensor hallucis longus, and two some numbness in the first web space. No patient required further treatment

Intramedullary nailing of metaphyseal fractures may be associated with deformity as a result of instability after fixation. Our aim was to evaluate the clinical use of Poller screws (blocking screws) as a supplement to stability after fixation with statically locked intramedullary nails of small diameter. We studied, prospectively, 21 tibial fractures, 10 in the proximal third and 11 in the distal third in 20 patients after the insertion of Poller screws over a mean period of 18.5 months (12 to 29). All fractures had united. Healing was evident radiologically at a mean of 5.4 ± 2.1 months (3 to 12) with a mean varus-valgus alignment of −1.0° (−5 to 3) and mean antecurvatum-recurvatum alignment of 1.6° (−6 to 11). The mean loss of reduction between placement of the initial Poller screw and follow-up was 0.5° in the frontal plane and 0.4° in the sagittal plane. There were no complications related to the Poller screw. The clinical outcome, according to the Karström-Olerud score, was not influenced by previous or concomitant injuries in 18 patients and was judged as excellent in three (17%), good in seven (39%), satisfactory in six (33%), fair in one (6%), and poor in one (6%)

There is concern about the incidence and serious nature of infection after intramedullary nailing of the tibia, especially for open injuries. We have reviewed 459 patients with tibial fractures treated by primary reamed nailing. The incidence of infection was 1.8% in closed and Gustilo type I open fractures, 3.8% in type II, and 9.5% in type III fractures (5.5% in type IIIa, 12.5% in type IIIb). These incidences appear to be acceptable in comparison with other published results. We describe the different modes of presentation of infection in these cases, and suggest a protocol for its management, which has been generally successful in our series

We report the use of elastic stable intramedullary nailing (ESIN) in 123 fractures of the femoral shaft in children. Flexible rods are introduced through the distal metaphyseal area, and the aim is to develop bridging callus. Early weight-bearing is possible and is recommended. There was one case of bone infection and no delayed union. Complications were minimal, the most common being minor skin ulceration caused by the ends of the rods. A surprising feature was the low incidence of growth changes, with a mean lengthening of only 1.2 mm after an average follow-up of 22 months. Compared with conservative treatment, ESIN obviates the need for prolonged bed rest and is thus particularly advantageous for treating children

We used 15 pairs of femora from fresh human cadavers to study the effects of the size and location of the entry hole for an intramedullary nail on the strength of the femur. Right femora were used as controls. Left femora in group 1 had a 10 mm entry hole in the 'ideal' location in the piriformis fossa. Group 2 had a 14 mm entry hole in the same position and group 3 had a 14 mm entry hole anterior to this on the superior aspect of the femoral neck. Femora were equipped with strain gauges and loaded to failure in compression. There was reduced stiffness and load to failure in group 3 specimens, suggesting that the location of the hole was more important than its size