Aims. The benefit of MRI in the preoperative assessment of scaphoid proximal fragment vascularity remains controversial. The purpose of this study is to compare preoperative MRI findings to intraoperative bleeding of the proximal scaphoid. Methods. A retrospective review of 102 patients who underwent surgery for scaphoid nonunion between January 2000 and December 2020 at a single institution were identified. Inclusion criteria were: isolated scaphoid nonunion; preoperative MRI assessing the proximal fragment vascularity; and operative details of the vascularity of the proximal fragment with the tourniquet deflated. MRI results and intraoperative findings were dichotomized as either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ for the presence of vascularity. A four-fold contingency table was used to analyze the utility of preoperative MRI with 95% confidence intervals. Relative risk was calculated for subgroups to analyze the association between variables and MRI accuracy. Results. Preoperative MRI identified 55 proximal scaphoid fragments with ischaemia and 47 with vascularized proximal fragments. After the proximal fragment was prepared, the tourniquet was deflated and assessed for bleeding; 63 proximal fragments had no bleeding and 39 demonstrated bleeding. MRI was not reliable or accurate in the assessment of proximal fragment vascularity when compared with intraoperative assessment of bleeding. No patient or MRI factors were identified to have a statistical impact on MRI accuracy. Conclusion. Current preoperative MRI protocols and diagnostic criteria do not provide a high degree of correlation with observed intraoperative assessment of proximal fragment bleeding. While preoperative MRI may assist in surgical planning, intraoperative assessment remains the best means for assessing proximal fragment vascularity in scaphoid nonunion. Future efforts should focus on the development of objective measures of osseous blood flow that may be performed intraoperatively. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(6):657–662

Aims. Vascular compromise due to arterial injury is a rare but serious complication of a proximal humeral fracture. The aims of this study were to report its incidence in a large urban population, and to identify clinical and radiological factors which are associated with this complication. We also evaluated the results of the use of our protocol for the management of these injuries. Methods. A total of 3,497 adult patients with a proximal humeral fracture were managed between January 2015 and December 2022 in a single tertiary trauma centre. Their mean age was 66.7 years (18 to 103) and 2,510 (72%) were female. We compared the demographic data, clinical features, and configuration of those whose fracture was complicated by vascular compromise with those of the remaining patients. The incidence of vascular compromise was calculated from national population data, and predictive factors for its occurrence were investigated using univariate analysis. Results. A total of 18 patients (0.5%) had a proximal humeral fracture and clinical evidence of vascular compromise, giving an annual incidence of 0.29 per 100,000 of the population. Their mean age was 68.7 years (45 to 92) and ten (56%) were female. Evidence of a mixed pattern neurological deficit (brachial plexus palsy) (odds ratio (OR) 380.6 (95% CI 85.9 to 1,685.8); p < 0.001), complete separation of the proximal shaft from the humeral head with medial displacement (OR 39.5 (95% CI 14.0 to 111.8); p < 0.001), and a fracture-dislocation (OR 5.0 (95% CI 1.6 to 15.3); p = 0.015) were all associated with an increased risk of associated vascular compromise. A policy of reduction and fixation of the fracture prior to vascular surgical intervention had favourable outcomes without vascular sequelae. Conclusion. The classic signs of distal ischaemia are often absent in patients with proximal injuries to major vessels. We were able to identify specific clinical and radiological ‘red flags’ which, particularly when present in combination, should increase the suspicion of a fracture with an associated vascular injury, and facilitate early diagnosis and appropriate combined orthopaedic and vascular intervention. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(8):842–848

Aims. Glucose-insulin-potassium (GIK) is protective following cardiac myocyte ischaemia-reperfusion (IR) injury, however the role of GIK in protecting skeletal muscle from IR injury has not been evaluated. Given the similar mechanisms by which cardiac and skeletal muscle sustain an IR injury, we hypothesized that GIK would similarly protect skeletal muscle viability. Methods. A total of 20 C57BL/6 male mice (10 control, 10 GIK) sustained a hindlimb IR injury using a 2.5-hour rubber band tourniquet. Immediately prior to tourniquet placement, a subcutaneous osmotic pump was placed which infused control mice with saline (0.9% sodium chloride) and treated mice with GIK (40% glucose, 50 U/l insulin, 80 mEq/L KCl, pH 4.5) at a rate of 16 µl/hr for 26.5 hours. At 24 hours following tourniquet removal, bilateral (tourniqueted and non-tourniqueted) gastrocnemius muscles were triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC)-stained to quantify percentage muscle viability. Bilateral peroneal muscles were used for gene expression analysis, serum creatinine and creatine kinase activity were measured, and a validated murine ethogram was used to quantify pain before euthanasia. Results. GIK treatment resulted in a significant protection of skeletal muscle with increased viability (GIK 22.07% (SD 15.48%)) compared to saline control (control 3.14% (SD 3.29%)) (p = 0.005). Additionally, GIK led to a statistically significant reduction in gene expression markers of cell death (CASP3, p < 0.001) and inflammation (NOS2, p < 0.001; IGF1, p = 0.007; IL-1β, p = 0.002; TNFα, p = 0.012), and a significant reduction in serum creatine kinase (p = 0.004) and creatinine (p < 0.001). GIK led to a significant reduction in IR-related pain (p = 0.030). Conclusion. Systemic GIK infusion during and after limb ischaemia protects murine skeletal muscle from cell death, kidneys from reperfusion metabolites, and reduces pain by reducing post-ischaemic inflammation. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2023;12(3):212–218

1. The types of ischaemia that accompany injuries to a limb are described. 2. The ischaemia may be total or local. 3. Thirty-seven cases of total or local ischaemia of a limb are analysed and conclusions are drawn therefrom

Ischaemia kills osteocytes, but opinions differ as to how long they can survive. These differences are due to the varying methods of inducing ischaemia, and to the different criteria for diagnosing cell death. Using rabbit bone and a technique of in vitro ischaemia at 37 degrees C, we have shown by electron microscopy that, after up to two hours, the changes which occur are probably reversible; after four hours, the cells were irreversibly damaged. This difference could not be detected by light microscopy. After 24 hours of ischaemia, most lacunae were empty or contained only osteocyte debris. We conclude that osteocytes suffer irreversible damage after in vitro ischaemia of about two hours, which is much the same response as that of most other mammalian cells

1. A patient with complete ischaemia of the muscles of the calf and anterior compartment of the leg is described. 2. In diagnosis, tenseness of the calf, equinus and pain on attempted dorsiflexion of the ankle are most important. 3. Peripheral pulses may be present and do not contra-indicate decompression by operation to prevent ischaemia

1. The frequency of variable degrees of ischaemia of soft tissue in closed tibial and fibular shaft fractures is emphasised. 2. Two cases with ischaemia of calf musculature are described. 3. A follow-up study of 100 cases of closed tibial shaft fractures is analysed; ten patients were found to be affected. 4. The anatomical and pathological changes are discussed. 5. A plea is made for early surgical exploration in cases manifesting signs of ischaemia

A model of tourniquet ischaemia was developed in the hind limb of the rat, and the metabolic changes that occurred in the calf muscles were monitored by the non-invasive technique of phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. During ischaemia the intramyocellular pH became acidic as the level of phosphocreatine declined and that of inorganic phosphate rose. Phosphocreatine was no longer detectable after approximately 2 hours and ATP was depleted after approximately 3.5 hours. Metabolic recovery was rapid (1 hour) if ATP was present when the tourniquet was released but was prolonged (3 or more hours) if ATP was depleted. Hourly release of the tourniquet for 10 minutes ensured the maintenance of ATP and rapid metabolic recovery. Release for intervals of only 5 minutes did not have the same protective effect and in fact worsened tissue pH during the period of tourniquet ischaemia. Heparin and corticosteroids were without effect during and after periods of tourniquet ischaemia

Peripheral limb ischaemia is rare in children. We have treated only 12 infants and children with this condition in the past 15 years at the Royal Hospital for Sick Children in Glasgow. There were nine neonates and three older children. Most were suffering from life-threatening illnesses or severe infection. Two were born with ischaemic arms with no apparent cause. We have analysed the factors leading to ischaemia, the outcome of the initial treatment and the later orthopaedic problems. Two required amputation of both legs, one of an arm, two of feet and one of toes. Two had skin grafts. All surgery was performed after demarcation was well established and delayed closure was used after amputation. Five children developed limb-length discrepancy or an angular deformity. To date two have required additional corrective surgery

A series of 26 children was referred to our specialist unit with a ‘pink pulseless hand’ following a supracondylar fracture of the distal humerus after a mean period of three months (4 days to 12 months) except for one referred after almost three years. They were followed up for a mean of 15.5 years (4 to 26). The neurovascular injuries and resulting impairment in function and salvage procedures were recorded. The mean age at presentation was 8.6 years (2 to 12). There were eight girls and 18 boys. Only four of the 26 patients had undergone immediate surgical exploration before referral and three of these four had a satisfactory outcome. In one child the brachial artery had been explored unsuccessfully at 48 hours. As a result 23 of the 26 children presented with established ischaemic contracture of the forearm and hand. Two responded to conservative stretching. In the remaining 21 the antecubital fossa was explored. The aim of surgery was to try to improve the function of the hand and forearm, to assess nerve, vessel and muscle damage, to relieve entrapment and to minimise future disturbance of growth. Based on our results we recommend urgent exploration of the vessels and nerves in a child with a ‘pink pulseless hand’, not relieved by reduction of a supracondylar fracture of the distal humerus and presenting with persistent and increasing pain suggestive of a deepening nerve lesion and critical ischaemia

A case is reported of fracture of the tibia in a haemophiliac, complicated by severe ischaemia. Extensive decompression of the limb followed later by skin grafting was required. The haematological management which made such surgery practicable is described. It involved the use of cryoprecipitate for a period of seven weeks

1. Volkmann's ischaemia of the lower limb is more common in adults than in children and occurs with sufficient frequency after injuries of the femur, knee and leg to warrant a more determined effort to prevent it. 2. The first and most essential step is to recognise the early signs of ischaemic damage. Incision of the deep fascia may then save the threatened underlying muscle, though it may also be necessary to seek for and evacuate a haematoma beneath the muscle. When the femoral or popliteal artery is injured, exploration and repair may be imperative. 3. The treatment of established ischaemic contracture is by whatever measures are necessary to correct the deformity. These are lengthening of shortened tendons, or excision of them if they are involved in dense fibrosis at the periphery of the ischaemic mass; and excision of all totally destroyed muscle. Amputation may be necessary

1. A bilateral case of chronic intermittent ischaemia of the soleus muscle within its fascial compartment is described in a dental surgeon aged twenty-seven. 2. Symptoms were promptly relieved by decompression. 3. The mechanism of the condition is compared with that of the anterior tibial syndrome

Between March 1993 and February 1999, 14 children aged from eight months to 14.75 years were admitted to the paediatric intensive-care unit with meningococcal septicaemia in association with severe peripheral ischaemia. Of these, 13 were operated upon, eight of whom had early fasciotomies. Five children died. Of the nine survivors, one had no amputations while in the other eight 14 limb segments were amputated. We review the case histories and propose a protocol for the early management of these children

Aims

The ‘pink, pulseless hand’ is often used to describe the clinical situation in which a child with a supracondylar fracture of the humerus has normal distal perfusion in the absence of a palpable peripheral pulse. The management guidelines are based on the assessment of perfusion, which is difficult to undertake and poorly evaluated objectively. The aim of this study was to review the available literature in order to explore the techniques available for the preoperative clinical assessment of perfusion in these patients and to evaluate the clinical implications.

The protective effect of local hypothermia was studied in pig's limbs made ischaemic by long, repeated application of a pneumatic tourniquet. Twenty-one Landrace pigs were anaesthetised on two separate occasions six days apart and a pneumatic tourniquet at 500 mmHg pressure was applied to the same forelimb for three and two hours respectively. Ten of the pigs had local hypothermia from cold gel packs placed around the limb during the first tourniquet application; the other 11 had the ischaemic limb exposed to room temperature. In comparison with the normothermic limbs, the hypothermic ischaemic limbs had significant slowing of metabolism. The hypothermic limbs also showed less inflammatory response and a faster rate of recovery, both immediately after removal of the tourniquet, and by the end of the experiment, 10 days after the first tourniquet. Local hypothermia produced by this technique was shown to be safe and effective, while appearing to protect muscles exposed to prolonged tourniquet-induced ischaemia

The predictive value of the pedal transcutaneous oxygen tension (tcPO2) and of the distal systolic blood pressure (SBP) in forecasting the necessity for later amputation has been studied in 26 patients suffering from severe chronic ischaemia of the lower limbs. In all these patients vascular surgery had failed or not been possible, and they were threatened by amputation; they suffered from trophic lesions, or pain at rest, or both. The great toe SBP averaged 10 mmHg (range 0 to 60 mmHg) and the pedal tcPO2 10 mmHg (range 2 to 45 mmHg). After six minutes of oxygen inhalation there was an increase in pedal tcPO2 of 9 mmHg (0 to 50 mmHg). After a follow-up period averaging 7 months (range 10 days to 13 months), 13 patients underwent an amputation and nine (five of whom had been amputated) died. The great toe SBP in the patients who required amputation was initially lower than in those who did not. The pedal tcPO2 also was lower in amputated than in non-amputated patients. There was no amputation in the group showing an increase of at least 10 mmHg after six minutes of oxygen inhalation; and conversely, all patients in whom the pedal tcPO2 increased less than 10 mmHg were amputated. Thus increase in the pedal tcPO2 after oxygen inhalation appears the best criterion for estimating the prognosis of severely ischaemic limbs

1. Experience with twelve cases of arterial trauma are presented.

2. Six limbs were amputated and six limbs saved.

3. Delay in effective treatment was the major cause of failure to save the limb.

4. Five types of limb injury involving vessels are described.

1. Twenty-five lower limbs, amputated above the knee for senile atherosclerosis with peripheral gangrene, have been investigated radiologically and histologically to determine the vascular patterns in ischaemic bone with particular reference to the tibia. These have been contrasted with the patterns found in non-atherosclerotic tubular bone.

2. The principal changes are the development of a diffuse vascularisation of compact and spongy bone; a widening of Haversian spaces which come to contain a variable number of sinusoidal blood vessels; and an increasing periosteal participation in cortical nutrition which is related to the severity and chronicity of the ischaemic process.

3. Views on the normal blood supply of long bones are discussed, and evidence is presented for regarding this as discrete and end-arterial in nature; in particular it is suggested that the normal cortex has a wholly medullary, centrifugal, arterial supply.

We analysed the complication rate in 140 below-knee amputations in relation to surgical technique and the presence of diabetes. In all cases, the skin perfusion pressure was measured below the knee before operation to provide an objective evaluation of the microcirculation. In diabetic patients we found a significantly higher complication rate after using a long posterior flap than after equal sagittal flaps. No such difference could be demonstrated in non-diabetic patients. We suggest that the higher incidence of atherosclerotic lesions in the three major arteries below the knee in diabetic patients may account for the difference. We recommend the use of the sagittal technique for below-knee amputation in diabetic patients.

Aims. Tourniquets have potential adverse effects including postoperative thigh pain, likely caused by their ischaemic and possible compressive effects. The aims of this preliminary study were to determine if it is possible to directly measure intramuscular pH in human subjects over time, and to measure the intramuscular pH changes resulting from tourniquet ischaemia in patients undergoing knee arthroscopy. Methods. For patients undergoing short knee arthroscopic procedures, a sterile calibrated pH probe was inserted into the anterior fascial compartment of the leg after skin preparation, but before tourniquet inflation. The limb was elevated for three minutes prior to tourniquet inflation to 250 mmHg or 300 mmHg. Intramuscular pH was recorded at one-second intervals throughout the procedure and for 20 minutes following tourniquet deflation. Probe-related adverse events were recorded. Results. A total of 27 patients were recruited to the study. Mean tourniquet time was 21 minutes (10 to 56). Tourniquet pressure was 300 mmHg for 21 patients and 250 mmHg for six patients. Mean muscle pH prior to tourniquet inflation was 6.80. Muscle pH decreased upon tourniquet inflation, with a steeper fall in the first ten minutes than for the rest of the procedure. Change in muscle pH was significant after five minutes of tourniquet ischaemia (p < 0.001). Mean muscle pH prior to tourniquet release was 6.58 and recovered to 6.75 within 20 minutes following release. No probe related adverse events were recorded. Conclusion. It is possible to directly measure skeletal muscle pH in human subjects over time. Tourniquet ischaemia results in a decrease in human skeletal muscle pH over time during short procedures. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(6):363–369

Aims. Treatment for delayed wound healing resulting from peripheral vascular diseases and diabetic foot ulcers remains a challenge. A novel surgical technique named ‘tibial cortex transverse transport’ (TTT) has been developed for treating peripheral ischaemia, with encouraging clinical effects. However, its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we explored the potential biological mechanisms of TTT surgery using various techniques in a rat TTT animal model. Methods. A novel rat model of TTT was established with a designed external fixator, and effects on wound healing were investigated. Laser speckle perfusion imaging, vessel perfusion, histology, and immunohistochemistry were used to evaluate the wound healing processes. Results. Gross and histological examinations showed that TTT technique accelerated wound closure and enhanced the quality of the newly formed skin tissues. In the TTT group, haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining demonstrated a better epidermis and dermis recovery, while immunohistochemical staining showed that TTT technique promoted local collagen deposition. The TTT technique also benefited to angiogenesis and immunomodulation. In the TTT group, blood flow in the wound area was higher than that of other groups according to laser speckle imaging with more blood vessels observed. Enhanced neovascularization was seen in the TTT group with double immune-labelling of CD31 and α-Smooth Muscle Actin (α-SMA). The number of M2 macrophages at the wound site in the TTT group was also increased. Conclusion. The TTT technique accelerated wound healing through enhanced angiogenesis and immunomodulation. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2022;11(4):189–199

Ischaemia is a rare complication of injury to a limb but must be excluded in every case. Two distinct types occur: Type I, where a proximal arterial injury gives rise to ischaemia distally; and Type II, where a direct injury gives rise to ischaemia at the site of the injury. Whatever the nature of the insult, an ischaemic contracture only develops as a result of swelling of the soft tissues where these soft tissues are contained in un unyielding osteofascial compartment. This secondary ischaemia can only be relieved by a timely fasciotomy. The diagnosis of ischaemia in an injured limb and the indications to operate on it can usually be made on clinical grounds alone

We have previously shown that prior exposure of rat hind limbs to ischaemia for five minutes and reperfusion for five minutes reduced the structural damage to skeletal muscle which followed a subsequent period of ischaemia for four hours and reperfusion for one hour. We have now examined the potential mechanisms by which this ischaemic preconditioning protocol may be effective in reducing damage to skeletal muscle induced by prolonged ischaemia and reperfusion. Prior exposure of the hindlimb to ischaemia for five minutes and reperfusion for five minutes did not prevent the fall in the ATP content of tibialis anterior which occurred after a subsequent period of ischaemia for four hours and reperfusion for one hour. Similarly, no effect of the preconditioning protocol was seen on the elevated muscle myeloperoxidase, indicative of an elevated neutrophil content, or abnormal muscle cation content. Reperfused ischaemic muscle was also found to have an increased content of heat-shock protein (HSP) 72, but the preconditioning protocol did not further increase the content of this or other HSPs indicating that it was not acting by increasing the expression of these cytoprotective proteins. The protective effects of preconditioning appeared to be mimicked by the infusion of adenosine to animals immediately before exposure to the four-hour period, indicating a potential mechanism by which skeletal muscle may be preconditioned to maintain structural viability

1. An investigation was made of the tolerance of the cells in the femoral head in rabbits for ischaemia brought about by transecting the ligament of the femoral head and applying a ligature around the femoral neck. The animals were killed two, six, twelve, twenty-four and seventy-two hours after operation. 2. In the cells of the bone marrow and in the osteoblasts distinct histological signs of disintegration were present six hours after operation. Pyknosis of the osteocyte nuclei was found after twenty-four hours' ischaemia; sometimes vacuolar clarifications could be observed in these pyknotic nuclei. After three days of ischaemia the staining affinity for Feulgen and haematoxylin of a number of osteocyte nuclei had visibly decreased. 3. The Feulgen-DNA content of the osteocyte nuclei-as measured in individual nuclei by means of an integrated microdensitometer-was significantly reduced as compared with similar nuclei from the control side as early as after six hours of ischaemia. This DNA loss was progressive with the period of ischaemia. From these facts, the conclusion was reached that in the femoral head of the rabbit the period of reversible damage for osteocytes must have ended within six hours

Ischaemic preconditioning is a process by which exposure of a tissue to a short period of non-damaging ischaemic stress leads to resistance to the deleterious effects of a subsequent prolonged ischaemic stress. It has been extensively described in the heart, but few studies have examined the possibility that it can occur in skeletal muscle. We have used a rat model of ischaemia of one limb to examine this possibility. Exposure of the hind limb to a period of ischaemia of five minutes and reperfusion for five minutes significantly protected the tibialis anterior muscle against the structural damage induced by a subsequent period of limb ischaemia for four hours and reperfusion for one hour. This protection was evident on examination of the muscle by both light and electron microscopy. Longer or shorter times of prior ischaemia had no effect

Aims. Compartment syndrome results from increased intra-compartmental pressure (ICP) causing local tissue ischaemia and cell death, but the systemic effects are not well described. We hypothesised that compartment syndrome would have a profound effect not only on the affected limb, but also on remote organs. Methods. Using a rat model of compartment syndrome, its systemic effects on the viability of hepatocytes and on inflammation and circulation were directly visualised using intravital video microscopy. Results. We found that hepatocellular injury was significantly higher in the compartment syndrome group (192 PI-labelled cells/10. -1 . mm. 3. , standard error of the mean (. sem. ) 51) compared with controls (30 PI-labelled cells/10. -1 . mm. 3. , . sem . 12, p < 0.01). The number of adherent venular white blood cells was significantly higher for the compartment syndrome group (5 leukocytes/30s/10 000 μm. 2. , . sem 1. ) than controls (0.2 leukocytes/30 s/10 000 μm. 2. , . sem . 0.2, p < 0.01). Volumetric blood flow was not significantly different between the two groups, although there was an increase in the heterogeneity of perfusion. Conclusions. Compartment syndrome can be accompanied by severe systemic inflammation and end organ damage. This study provides evidence of the relationship between compartment syndrome in a limb and systemic inflammation and dysfunction in a remote organ. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016; 98-B:1132–7

Vascular injuries during total hip arthroplasty (THA) are rare but when they occur, have serious consequences. These have traditionally been managed with open exploration and repair, but more recently there has been a trend towards percutaneous endovascular management. We performed a systematic review of the literature to assess if this change in trend has led to an improvement in the overall reported rates of morbidity and mortality during the last 22 years in comparison with the reviews of the literature published previously. . We found a total of 61 articles describing 138 vascular injuries in 124 patients. Injuries because of a laceration were the most prevalent (n = 51, 44%) and the most common presenting feature, when recorded, was bleeding (n = 41, 53.3%). Delay in diagnosis was associated with the type of vascular lesion (p < 0.001) and the clinical presentation (p = 0.002). Open exploration and repair was the most common form of management, however percutaneous endovascular intervention was used in one third of the injuries and more constantly during the last 13 years. The main overall reported complications included death (n = 9, 7.3%), amputation (n = 2, 1.6%), and persistent ischaemia (n = 9, 7.3%). When compared with previous reviews there was a similar rate of mortality but lower rates of amputation and permanent disability, especially in patients managed by endovascular strategies. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:1447–55

1 . In the common type of Volkmann's ischaemic contracture affecting the forearm flexors, the infarct takes the form of an ellipsoid with its axis in the line of the anterior interosseous artery and with its central point a little above the middle of the forearm. The greatest damage is at the centre and usually falls most heavily on flexor digitorum profundus and flexor pollicis longus, which are often necrotic. Those muscles more superficially placed, and sometimes the deep extensors, are more likely to exhibit fibrosis. 2. The median nerve runs near the centre of the ellipsoid and may exhibit profound ischaemia. The ulnar nerve, lying at the edge of the ischaemic zone, tends to be less severely affected. 3. The treatment for this condition is excision of all tissues irreparably damaged by ischaemia. If this operation is performed within twelve months from the time of injury, correction of the contracture should be almost complete. The tendons of shortened but active muscles are lengthened or transplanted. 4. After such excision it is possible to carry out reconstructive procedures commonly used in the surgery of lower motor neurone disorders and of trauma. A wide variety of tendon transplantations is available. The median nerve may be repaired either by a free graft or, in cases where both nerves have been extensively damaged by ischaemia, by an ulnar to median nerve-pedicle graft

Objectives. An experimental piglet model induces avascular necrosis (AVN) and deformation of the femoral head but its secondary effects on the developing acetabulum have not been studied. The aim of this study was to assess the development of secondary acetabular deformation following femoral head ischemia. Methods. Intracapsular circumferential ligation at the base of the femoral neck and sectioning of the ligamentum teres were performed in three week old piglets. MRI was then used for qualitative and quantitative studies of the acetabula in operated and non-operated hips in eight piglets from 48 hours to eight weeks post-surgery. Specimen photographs and histological sections of the acetabula were done at the end of the study. . Results. The operated-side acetabula were wider, shallower and misshapen, with flattened labral edges. At eight weeks, increased acetabular cartilage thickness characterised the operated sides compared with non-operated sides (p < 0.001, ANOVA). The mean acetabular width on the operated side was increased (p = 0.015) while acetabular depth was decreased anteriorly (p = 0.007) and posteriorly (p = 0.44). The cartilage was thicker, with delayed acetabular bone formation, and showed increased vascularisation with fibrosis laterally and focal degenerative changes involving chondrocyte hypocellularity, chondrocyte cloning, peripheral pannus formation and surface fibrillation. . Conclusions. We demonstrate that femoral head AVN in the young growing piglet also induced, and was coupled with, secondary malformation in acetabular shape affecting both articular and adjacent pelvic cartilage structure, and acetabular bone. The femoral head model inducing AVN can also be applied to studies of acetabular maldevelopment, which is less well understood in terms of developing hip malformation. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:130–8

Aims

Nonagenarians (aged 90 to 99 years) have experienced the fastest percent decile population growth in the USA recently, with a consequent increase in the prevalence of nonagenarians living with joint arthroplasties. As such, the number of revision total hip arthroplasties (THAs) and total knee arthroplasties (TKAs) in nonagenarians is expected to increase. We aimed to determine the mortality rate, implant survivorship, and complications of nonagenarians undergoing aseptic revision THAs and revision TKAs.

We describe 20 patients, aged between 43 and 88 years, with delayed nerve palsy or deepening of an initial palsy caused by arterial injury from low-energy injuries to the shoulder. The onset of palsy ranged from immediately after the injury to four months later. There was progression in all the patients with an initial partial nerve palsy. Pain was severe in 18 patients, in 16 of whom it presented as neurostenalgia and in two as causalgia. Dislocation of the shoulder or fracture of the proximal humerus occurred in 16 patients. There was soft-tissue crushing in two and prolonged unconsciousness from alcoholic intoxication in another two. Decompression of the plexus and repair of the arterial injury brought swift relief from pain in all the patients. Nerve recovery was generally good, but less so in neglected cases. The interval from injury to the repair of the vessels ranged from immediately afterwards to 120 days. Delayed onset of nerve palsy or deepening of a nerve lesion is caused by bleeding and/or impending critical ischaemia and is an overwhelming indication for urgent surgery. There is almost always severe neuropathic pain

Initial treatment of traumatic spinal cord injury remains as controversial in 2023 as it was in the early 19th century, when Sir Astley Cooper and Sir Charles Bell debated the merits or otherwise of surgery to relieve cord compression. There has been a lack of high-class evidence for early surgery, despite which expeditious intervention has become the surgical norm. This evidence deficit has been progressively addressed in the last decade and more modern statistical methods have been used to clarify some of the issues, which is demonstrated by the results of the SCI-POEM trial. However, there has never been a properly conducted trial of surgery versus active conservative care. As a result, it is still not known whether early surgery or active physiological management of the unstable injured spinal cord offers the better chance for recovery. Surgeons who care for patients with traumatic spinal cord injuries in the acute setting should be aware of the arguments on all sides of the debate, a summary of which this annotation presents.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):347–355.

Popliteal artery injury (PAI) is a feared complication during knee replacement. Our aim was to investigate those injuries that occurred in association with knee replacement in terms of the type of injury, treatment and outcomes. From our national vascular registry (Swedvasc) and the Swedish Patient Insurance databases a total of 32 cases were identified. Prospective data from the registries was supplemented with case-records, including long-term follow-up. We estimated the incidence during 1998 to 2010 to be 0.017%. In our series of 32 patients with PAI occurring between 1987 and 2011, 25 (78%) were due to penetrating trauma and seven were caused by blunt trauma. The patients presented in three ways: bleeding (14), ischaemia (7) and false aneurysm formation (11), and five occurred during revision surgery. A total of 12 injuries were detected intra-operatively, eight within 24 hours (3 to 24) and 12 at more than 24 hours post-operatively (2 to 90 days). Treatment comprised open surgery in 28 patients. Patency of the vascular repair at 30 days was 97% (31 of 32, one amputation). At the time of follow-up (median 546 days, mean 677 days (24 to 1251)), 25 patients had residual symptoms. Of seven patients with a complete recovery, six had had an early diagnosis of the PAI during the procedure, and were treated by a vascular surgeon in the same hospital. PAI is a rare adverse event during knee replacement surgery. The outcome following such events is often adversely affected by diagnostic and therapeutic delay. Bleeding and false aneurysm were the most common clinical presentations. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1645–9

Using a computer-based quality assurance program, we analysed peri-operative data on 160 patients undergoing one-stage bilateral hip or knee arthroplasties under regional anaesthesia with routine anaesthetic monitoring and only using peripheral intravenous access for peri-operative safety. We monitored defined intra-operative adverse events such as hypotension, myocardial ischaemia, arrhythmias, hypovolaemia, hypertension and early post-operative complications. We also determined post-operative hip and knee function, and patient satisfaction with different aspects of the anaesthetic management. Those patients undergoing one-stage bilateral arthroplasties were matched according to a cross-stratification which used three variables (American Society of Anesthesiologists’ physical status scoring system, age and joint replaced) to patients undergoing unilateral hip or knee arthroplasties. Serious intra-operative adverse events were, with the exception of intra-operative hypotension, very infrequent in patients undergoing bilateral (nine adverse events) as well as unilateral arthroplasties (five adverse events). Early post-operative complications were also infrequent in both groups. However, the risks of receiving a heterologous blood transfusion (odds ratio 2.5; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.3 to 5.0, estimated by exact conditional logistic regression) or vasoactive drugs (odds ratio 3.9; 95% CI 2.0 to 7.8) were significantly greater for patients undergoing bilateral operations. Patient satisfaction with anaesthesia was high; all patients who underwent the one-stage bilateral operation would choose the same anaesthetic technique again

Aims

The aim of this study was to assess the safety and clinical outcome of patients with a femoral shaft fracture and a previous complex post-traumatic femoral malunion who were treated with a clamshell osteotomy and fixation with an intramedullary nail (IMN).

Aims

Pneumatic tourniquets are often used during the surgical treatment of unstable traumatic ankle fractures. The aim of this study was to assess the risk of reoperation after open reduction and internal fixation of ankle fractures with and without the use of pneumatic tourniquets.

Aims

Transfusion after primary total hip arthroplasty (THA) has become rare, and identification of causative factors allows preventive measures. The aim of this study was to determine patient-specific factors that increase the risk of needing a blood transfusion.

Acute colonic pseudo-obstruction is a poorly recognised and potentially fatal complication of hip surgery. Between 1991 and 1994 six patients were observed who required laparotomy after failure of medical management. In three the indication was signs of peritonism, while in the other three exploration was required to exclude segmental ischaemia and to decompress the bowel. In all, there was no evidence of mechanical obstruction. Patients having total hip replacement are at risk of developing pseudo-obstruction due to their age, comorbidity, high doses of analgesics and the nature of the operation. If postoperative ileus persists for more than 48 hours acute colonic pseudo-obstruction should be suspected and confirmed by plain radiography. Prompt recognition and treatment with early referral to a colorectal unit are indicated. Laparotomy appears to carry less risk than that for patients with idiopathic pseudo-obstruction, but should be performed only if colonic ischaemia is suspected

Using in situ hybridisation and the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotin-dUTP nick end-labelling (TUNEL) reaction in rats with osteonecrosis of the femoral head we have studied the effect of ischaemia on the gene expression of the stress proteins oxygen-regulated protein 150 (ORP150) and haemoxygenase 1 (HO1) and the death mechanism of the cells involved in osteonecrosis. Both ORP150 and HO1 have been reported to have important roles in the successful adaptation to oxygen deprivation. ORP150 and HO1 mRNA expression was induced by ischaemia in osteoblasts and osteocytes. In proliferative chondrocytes, these signals were detected constitutively. During the development of ischaemic osteonecrosis, the mechanism of cell death was apoptosis as indicated by DNA fragmentation and the presence of apoptotic bodies in osteocytes, chondrocytes and bone-marrow cells. After the initial ischaemic event, expression of ORP150 and HO1 mRNA, the TUNEL-positive reaction and empty lacunae were found sequentially. These findings were exclusive and may be considered to be markers for each stage in the development of osteonecrosis

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The aim of this study was to reassess the rate of neurological, psoas-related, and abdominal complications associated with L4-L5 lateral lumbar interbody fusion (LLIF) undertaken using a standardized preoperative assessment and surgical technique.

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Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) demonstrates the most feared complication after total joint replacement (TJR). The current work analyzes the demographic, comorbidity, and complication profiles of all patients who had in-hospital treatment due to PJI. Furthermore, it aims to evaluate the in-hospital mortality of patients with PJI and analyze possible risk factors in terms of secondary diagnosis, diagnostic procedures, and complications.

Aims

In this investigation, we administered oxidative stress to nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs), recognized DNA-damage-inducible transcript 4 (DDIT4) as a component in intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD), and devised a hydrogel capable of conveying small interfering RNA (siRNA) to IVDD.

Traumatic uraemia is of particular significance to orthopaedic surgeons in so far as this complication is responsible for high mortality in cases of severe injury, crushing injury, traumatic shock, gun-shot wounds, incompatible blood transfusions, and the misuse of tourniquets. In this contribution the association between muscle injury and renal failure is reviewed. The syndrome of the "crush kidney," which at first was thought to be the result of deposition of myohaemoglobin in the renal tubules, is almost certainly due to the association of many factors, all of which lead to alteration of the renal circulation and renal ischaemia. Certainly the combination of ischaemia of the kidney with deposition of pigment and haemolysis of blood causes a high mortality in animals, and it is believed that this may account for the serious prognosis in human cases where there is both shock and haemolysis. Disturbance of water balance, allergic phenomena, and chemical nephrotoxic action are also discussed. The pathology is considered together with significant changes in the blood chemistry. A plea is made for early recognition of this clinical syndrome with its characteristic features. Important aspects of treatment are discussed. The dangers of excessive intravenous infusion are emphasised. Closer investigation and further research promise to throw light on the more accurate localisation of function in the nephron, to add to our knowledge of traumatic arterial spasm, and to explain many orthopaedic problems which hitherto appeared insoluble

Specimens of femoral heads were studied at necropsy in two cases of Legg-Calve-Perthes' disease. One was that of a boy aged four years ten months who died from appendicitis; the other was from a boy aged six years who died from a malignant glioma. Both had been treated for one and a half years for Legg-Calve-Perthes' disease which was in a stage of repair at the time of death. The diseased femoral heads were moderately flattened but the surface cartilage was intact. Epiphysial bone and bone marrow were partly replaced by cartilage, fibrous tissue and granulation tissue, and new bone was being formed. Inflammatory reaction was inconspicuous. Enchondral bone formation was only slightly decreased, and the structure of the growth plate was undisturbed. There was no sign of systemic bone disease. In the first case the changes indicated that more than one episode of ischaemia had occurred, and an occlusion--probably from an old thrombus--was demonstrated in the posterior inferior retinacular artery of the femoral head. The last episode of ischaemia, furthermore, had caused infarction of part of the metaphysial bone. In both cases, the central area of the metaphysial bone of the affected femur contained fat, but there were few haemopoietic cells and it therefore looked pale. The findings are discussed in relation to previous work on the pathology in Legg-Calve-Perthes' disease, recent information on the vascularisation of the femoral head in children, and experimental and comparative animal studies

Aims

The volume of ambulatory total hip arthroplasty (THA) procedures is increasing due to the emphasis on value-based care. The purpose of the study is to identify the causes for failed same-day discharge (SDD) and perioperative factors leading to failed SDD.

We describe a management strategy for upper- and lower-limb fractures with associated arterial injury and report the results in 113 cases treated over a period of 18 years. Primary amputation was performed in 23 patients and of those who underwent primary vascular repair, 27 needed secondary amputation, two-thirds of them within a week of the injury. Of those requiring secondary amputation, 51.8% had ischaemia exceeding six hours, 81.4% had severe soft-tissue injury and 85.2% had type III open fractures. The patients whose limbs had been salvaged were followed up for an average of 5.6 years. The eventual outcome depended on the severity of the fracture, the degree of soft-tissue damage, the length of the ischaemic period, the severity of neurological involvement, and the presence of associated major injuries. There was a 30% incidence of long-term disability in the salvaged limbs, largely due to poor recovery of neurological function. Prompt recognition of such combined injuries is vital and requires a high index of suspicion in patients with multiple injuries and with certain fracture patterns. We recommend a multidisciplinary approach, liberal use of pre-operative angiography in upper-limb injuries and selective use of intra-operative angiography in lower-limb injuries. Stable external or internal fixation of the fractures and re-establishment of limb perfusion are urgent surgical priorities to reduce the period of ischaemia which is critical for successful limb salvage

Post-natal vasculogenesis, the process by which vascular committed bone marrow stem cells or endothelial precursor cells migrate, differentiate and incorporate into the nacent endothelium and thereby contribute to physiological and pathological neurovascularisation, has stimulated much interest. Its contribution to neovascularisation of tumours, wound healing and revascularisation associated with ischaemia of skeletal and cardiac muscles is well established. We evaluated the responses of endothelial precursor cells in bone marrow to musculoskeletal trauma in mice. Bone marrow from six C57 Black 6 mice subjected to a standardised, closed fracture of the femur, was analysed for the combined expression of cell-surface markers stem cell antigen 1 (sca-1. +. ) and stem cell factor receptor, CD117 (c-kit. +. ) in order to identify the endothelial precursor cell population. Immunomagnetically-enriched sca-1. +. mononuclear cell (MNC. sca-1+. ) populations were then cultured and examined for functional vascular endothelial differentiation. Bone marrow MNC. sca-1+,c-kit+. counts increased almost twofold within 48 hours of the event, compared with baseline levels, before decreasing by 72 hours. Sca-1. +. mononuclear cell populations in culture from samples of bone marrow at 48 hours bound together Ulex Europus-1, and incorporated fluorescent 1,1′-dioctadecyl- 3,3,3,’3′-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate-labelled acetylated low-density lipoprotein intracellularily, both characteristics of mature endothelium. Our findings suggest that a systemic provascular response of bone marrow is initiated by musculoskeletal trauma. Its therapeutic manipulation may have implications for the potential enhancement of neovascularisation and the healing of fractures

Aims

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between changes in patellar height and clinical outcomes at a mean follow-up of 7.7 years (5 to 10) after fixed-bearing posterior-stabilized total knee arthroplasty (PS-TKA).

Aims

Non-coding microRNA (miRNA) in extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) may promote neuronal repair after spinal cord injury (SCI). In this paper we report on the effects of MSC-EV-microRNA-381 (miR-381) in a rodent model of SCI.

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The purpose was to evaluate early clinical, patient-reported, and radiological outcomes of the scapholunate ligament 360° tenodesis (SL 360) technique for treatment of scapholunate (SL) instability.

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In our unit, we adopt a two-stage surgical reconstruction approach using internal fixation for the management of infected Charcot foot deformity. We evaluate our experience with this functional limb salvage method.

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To investigate whether idiopathic osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH) is related to impaired osteoblast activities.

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Complex fractures of the femur and tibia with associated severe soft tissue injury are often devastating for the individual. The aim of this study was to describe the two-year patient-reported outcomes of patients in a civilian population who sustained a complex fracture of the femur or tibia with a Mangled Extremity Severity Score (MESS) of ≥ 7, whereby the score ranges from 2 (lowest severity) to 11 (highest severity).

Aims

The main objective of this study is to analyze the penetration of bone cement in four different full cementation techniques of the tibial tray.

1. Three cases of traumatic anuria following muscle ischaemia ("crush syndrome") are reported. 2. The pathogenesis and treatment of the condition are discussed. 3. A scheme of management directed to the prevention of renal failure is proposed

1. Two cases of arterial damage complicating shoulder injuries are reported. 2. The treatment is described and the importance of early diagnosis is stressed. 3. Operation was indicated in both cases by developing ischaemia in spite of conservative measures

Forty-five Chinese patients had below-knee amputation by a sagittal flap technique; 84% for ischaemia. Satisfactory healing was obtained in over 90%, but complications and failure were more common in patients with diabetes mellitus. A modified sagittal flap is recommended

1. Three cases of premature epiphysial closure at the knee complicating prolonged immobilisation for congenital dislocation of the hip are described. 2. The etiology of this complication is briefly discussed, and it is suggested that relative ischaemia of the epiphysial plates is the most likely cause

1. A case of persistent exercise ischaemia affecting the anterior tibial group of muscles is described. 2. Pathogenesis and treatment are discussed. Decompression of the anterior tibial compartment is required if the patient is unwilling to give up whatever activity causes the exercise pain

Cartilage formation was provoked in the skull vault of the young rat by making multiple incisions, and scraping the periosteum to reduce the blood supply to the injured area. The hypothesis that ischaemia induces osteogenic cells to produce cartilage in the course of fracture repair thus receives experimental support

Torsion and subsequent ischaemia is a well-recognised cause of symptoms and morbidity in general surgery. We present three cases of solitary pigmented villonodular tumours of the knee which were found to have undergone torsion. We believe these to be the first intra-articular tumours in which torsion has been reported

1. A small mobile oxygen chamber is described which overcomes some of the disadvantages of using high pressure oxygen therapy in cases of general or local anoxia. 2. A case of limb ischaemia following an open fracture of the tibia and fibula is described in which such a method of treatment was used

We perfused 16 human femora with a 50% barium sulphate suspension and studied the intra-osseous vessels by microfocal radiography and histology. There were few anastomoses between the vessels of the greater trochanter and those of the adjacent cancellous bone of the shaft. Ischaemia of the trochanter may contribute to nonunion after trochanteric osteotomy

1. A case of Volkmann's ischaemic contracture, in which function was greatly improved by a muscle slide operation, is described. 2. The possibility of regeneration of muscle after ischaemia is reviewed in the light of recent research. 3. Injection experiments suggest that the forearm flexors, like the gastroenemius,are supplied by end arteries

Aims

Open discectomy (OD) is the standard operation for lumbar disc herniation (LDH). Percutaneous endoscopic lumbar discectomy (PELD), however, has shown similar outcomes to OD and there is increasing interest in this procedure. However despite improved surgical techniques and instrumentation, reoperation and infection rates continue and are reported to be between 6% and 24% and 0.7% and 16%, respectively. The objective of this study was to compare the rate of reoperation and infection within six months of patients being treated for LDH either by OD or PELD.

1. Exercise ischaemia in athletes with chronic pain over the postero-medial border of the tibia is described. 2. Fasciotomy of the compartment of the deep flexor muscles as a treatment of "shin splints" is recommended. 3. In eleven patients the symptoms were completely relieved and the athletes were able to start effective training within four weeks

Aims

Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor has been reported to attenuate inflammatory response in rat models of inflammation. This study was designed to investigate the effect of PARP signalling in osteoarthritis (OA) cartilage inflammatory response in an OA rat model.

Disarticulation has been carried out in ten ankles in nine patients in whom it was not possible to use a heel flap. Four patients were able to walk with a prosthesis which gave satisfactory function. In five who were bedridden, healing was achieved and was of sufficient quality to allow transfers. There was no operative morbidity or mortality. This technique can be used instead of a transtibial amputation if necrosis or ischaemia of the heel is a contraindication to conventional Syme’s amputation

Aims

To describe the clinical, radiological, and functional outcomes in patients with isolated congenital thoracolumbar kyphosis who were treated with three-column osteotomy by posterior-only approach.

We report the management and outcome of 35 lower limb fractures with associated severe vascular injuries treated over a 15-year period. Limb survival was related to the period of ischaemia. Management of the fractures by immediate open reduction and internal fixation was associated with a higher amputation rate than either external fixation or simple splintage, particularly for upper tibial injuries. External fixation is recommended as the method of choice for the stabilisation of the skeletal injury. A selective policy is advised for fasciotomy

1. The tarsal tunnel syndrome is a clinical entity and is probably more often encountered than is recognised. 2. The cause is unknown but is probably like that responsible for the carpal tunnel syndrome. Experimental evidence suggests that the sensory symptoms in both these conditions are due to localised ischaemia of the nerve within the fibro-osseous tunnels, and that later structural changes are responsible for motor paralysis. 3. Relief of symptoms is complete if decompression of the posterior tibial nerve is performed before the onset of motor involvement

The use of tourniquets in lower limb trauma surgery to control bleeding and improve the surgical field is a long established practice. In this article, we review the evidence relating to harms and benefits of tourniquet use in lower limb fracture fixation surgery and report the results of a survey on current tourniquet practice among trauma surgeons in the UK.

There are differences of opinion about the pathogenesis of Perthes' disease. All are agreed that it is due to ischaemia, but the cause of this and the size and number of infarctions are in dispute. Through the generosity of the contributors six whole femoral heads and core biopsies of five other cases have been studied radiographically and histologically. The findings ranged from an ischaemic arrest of ossification in the capital articular cartilage without infarction to multiple complete infarctions of the epiphysial bone. The ensuing reparative process contributes to the pathology, which is of a range to warrant grading or grouping

The nuclide bone-scan will reliably diagnose Perthes' disease with a sensitivity of 0.98 and a specificity of 0.95. The comparable figures for radiographic sensitivity and specificity are respectively 0.92 and 0.78. In addition, it is possible on the scan to recognise the onset of revascularisation of the femoral capital epiphysis some months before there are radiographic signs of new bone formation. Scintigraphy also suggests that in some cases of transient synovitis there may bae a period of reversible ischaemia of the capital epiphysis, which may have relevance to the pathogenesis of Perthes' disease

1. The long-term results in a consecutive series of 323 healed subcapital fractures of the femur show that, with few exceptions, the capital fragment maintains its integrity when the fragments are aligned within the narrow limits of good reduction, but undergoes superior segmental collapse when reduction is poor. 2. The effect of malreduction on the congruity of the hip joint is examined, and a remodelling response to malalignment of the aspherical femoral head in the imperfectly round acetabulum is proposed as an alternative interpretation of the radiological changes now considered to be the result of capital ischaemia

Seven children who had partial arrest of the growth plate after neonatal arterial cannulation, developed obvious skeletal changes in adolescence. Cannulation of the femoral artery produced ischaemia which led to four cases of ipsilateral shortening of the lower limb and one of partial arrest of the proximal femoral physis with subsequent coxa valga. The two arrests in the upper limb affected the humerus, ulna and radius, and the radius alone, after cannulation of the brachial and radial arteries, respectively. These late effects of cannulation are not widely appreciated, and may occur as a result of thrombosis rather than extravasation

A prospective survey was carried out on all cases of irritable hip presenting at the Royal Liverpool Children's Hospital over a period of one year. All children had a radioisotope scan of the hips and were then followed for one year by serial radiography. Five of the 50 children seen during the one year had areas of ischaemia in the capital femoral epiphysis demonstrated on the scan. all five developed radiological signs of Perthes' disease within sic months. The remaining 45 had radiographically normal hips at one year

1. A case is described of severe birth injury to the sternomastoid muscle in a breech-delivered two-day-old infant. The affected muscle showed widespread haemorrhage, fragmentation and necrosis of its fibres, and disruption and disorganisation of the endomysial sheaths. 2. Disruptive muscular trauma of this type is known to lead to florid fibroblastic proliferation with formation of a large mass of scar tissue. It is suggested that the "sternomastoid tumour" of infancy develops as a sequel to such trauma occurring during birth. 3. The theories of birth trauma and of ischaemia, in the etiology of the "sternomastoid tumour" of infancy and of congenital muscular torticollis, are not mutually exclusive but may be complementary, the circumstances causing the trauma also leading to ischaemic damage

1. This case is presented to illustrate two etiological factors in tendon rupture occurring in one patient. 2. The rupture of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle appears to have been of acute traumatic origin. 3. Bilateral simultaneous rupture of the calcaneal tendons is rare, but it seems probable that the cortico-steroid therapy was the etiological factor in this case. 4. It has been suggested that degeneration in the tendon is caused by ischaemia, secondary to hypertrophy of the tunica media and narrowing of the medium calibre blood vessels. Betamethazone could possibly have aggravated, or may even have caused these changes, and the periarteriolar changes found in the biopsy specimen would tend to support this theory

Aims

The aim of this study was to report the results of three forms of reconstruction for patients with a ditsl tibial bone tumour: an intercalary resection and reconstruction, an osteoarticular reconstruction, and arthrodesis of the ankle.

Combined bony and vascular injuries present challenging problems to orthopaedic and vascular surgeons. The use of temporary intraluminal vascular shunts produces significant reductions in ischaemia time and allows fracture stabilisation to be performed before definitive, delicate vascular repair. We report our management of a five-week-old infant who sustained a comminuted fracture of the femur with arterial and venous injuries in a shooting incident. Paediatric nasogastric feeding tubes were used as temporary vascular shunts to re-establish the distal circulation. Stabilisation of the fracture was then followed by vascular reconstruction and soft-tissue surgery, with a good result. We emphasise the need for skills from several surgical disciplines in the management of complex combined injuries

Thickening of the fibrous element of a peripheral nerve may be caused by repeated friction, traction, constriction, ischaemia or partial rupture. The sequel may be a conduction disorder and a clinical condition such as an entrapment neuropathy or a tardy nerve palsy. Neural fibrosis is typically associated with a pseudoneuroma in continuity which has resulted from scarring and adhesions around the nerve as well as proliferation of the fibrous element within the nerve; the fibrosis may be classified as extraneural, intraneural or dispersive. We report 17 cases treated by external neurolysis, with 14 satisfactory results, and 42 patients treated by internal neurolysis with success in 37. Seven of the eight failures were in cases of dispersive fibrosis. A technique of internal neurolysis is described

Experience in the management of fourteen children with melorheostosis has been reviewed. The principal and presenting clinical features were unilateral soft-tissue contractures associated with inequality of limb length. In contrast to the disease in adults, pain occurred infrequently and was never intense. The average interval between the discovery of the clinical features and the correct diagnosis was six years. The distinctive radiographic feature in the child was an endosteal pattern of hyperostosis marked by streakiness of the long bones and spotting of the small. This differs from the usual subperiosteal or extracortical pattern of hyperostosis seen in adults. The surgical treatment of the contractures proved difficult and recurrence of the deformity was the rule. Distal ischaemia occurred when the chronically contracted and flexed joint was rapidly extended

1. Six cases of necrosis of articular cartilage complicating slipping of the upper femoral epiphysis are reviewed: histological examination in one case showed death of the superficial two-thirds of the articular cartilage, with survival of a layer of basal chondrocytes. In all six cases, after severe initial reduction of joint space as seen radiographically, there was gradual return of joint space, suggesting some regeneration of articular cartilage. The prognosis after cartilage necrosis is therefore not always so bad as has been supposed. 2. Various hypotheses concerning the cause of cartilage necrosis complicating slipped epiphysis are reviewed. The precise cause remains unknown, but there is substantial evidence against its being a consequence of ischaemia of the femoral head

The transcutaneous oxygen pressure (tcPO2) was measured by a polarographic technique in the legs of 161 volunteers and compared with the levels found in 62 patients with ischaemic skin due to peripheral vascular disease. The results show that the tcPO2 was related to the degree of ischaemia and, in many cases, was a more accurate guide to the viability of the skin than clinical assessment. Measurement of the transcutaneous oxygen pressure in the leg at the site of amputation in 24 patients with peripheral vascular disease showed that a preoperative level greater than 40 millimetres of mercury at an electrode temperature of 44 degrees Celsius was necessary for the skin of the stump to heal. The technique is simple, non-invasive and reliable. The tcPO2 accurately reflects the physiological and pathological changes in the circulation of the skin. It has potential in many fields of surgery where careful assessment of the viability of the skin is necessary

The effect of calcaneal traction on the compartmental pressure in the legs of five individuals with tibial fractures was studied. Mean resting pressures without traction were found to be 31.9 mmHg for the deep posterior compartment and 27.0 mmHg for the anterior compartment. For each kilogram weight of traction applied the deep posterior pressure rose by 5.7 per cent of the resting value and the anterior pressure by 1.6 per cent. It is suggested that the weight of traction should be only sufficient to render the patient comfortable and maintain alignment of the limb. Excessive traction is likely to increase the risk of compartmental ischaemia. The application of six kilograms of traction would raise the mean resting pressure by 34 per cent from 31.9 to 42.7 mmHg

Ischaemia resulting from increased joint pressure may play a role in the pathogenesis of necrosis of the femoral head epiphysis. We studied the effect of temporary vascular occlusion on this epiphysis in young rabbits. Occlusion for six hours resulted in necrosis of trabecular bone and of intertrabecular marrow and vascular tissue, later followed by revascularisation and repair, as has been demonstrated previously. In contrast, raised intra-articular pressure lasting for only two hours resulted in a more complex picture: trabecular osteocytes were dead, whereas the bone-forming marrow was shown by fluorochrome labelling to remain viable, and to form appositional repair bone throughout the epiphysis. We concluded that transient vascular occlusion may cause the death of trabeculae despite intact perfusion of the bone. This type of change may be important in the pathogenesis of Perthes' disease

The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of fluorocarbon on the preservation of an amputated limb. The hind limbs of dogs were completely amputated through the mid-thigh; some were perfused with fluorocarbon, others with lactated Ringer's solution and some were not perfused at all. After six hours of ischaemia, all the limbs were replanted. Perfusion with fluorocarbon had an inhibitory effect on the anaerobic metabolism of an amputated limb, thus increasing the survival rate. Leakage of creatine phosphokinase from the replanted limb also was inhibited by perfusion with fluorocarbon. These effects were more striking when the amputated limb was perfused continuously rather than intermittently and when it was preserved in iced water rather than at room temperature; these measures helped to prevent replantation toxaemia and to preserve muscle function

An electrophysiological system for monitoring the spinal cord during operations for scoliosis is described. During the development of the technique the recording of cortical somatosensory evoked potentials from the scalp and spinal somatosensory evoked potentials from the laminae or spines was superseded by the positioning of recording electrodes in the epidural space cephalad to the area to be fused. All recordings were made in response to stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve at the knee. Results in 138 patients are presented and the findings in three patients who exhibited neurological deficits after operation are described. It is concluded that spinal somatosensory evoked potentials are sensitive to minor spinal cord impairment, possible due to ischaemia, and that these changes may be reversed when the cause is quickly remedied. The monitoring system interferes minimally with anaesthetic and surgical procedures and is now performed as a routine

1. Three cases of traumatic arterial spasm are reported. 2. In each case there was increased tension in a neighbouring myofascial compartment. 3. The cause of this tension was oedema, possibly supplemented in one case by haematoma. 4. Release of tension by splitting the sheath was followed by relaxation of the artery. 5. It is suggested that tension in a fascial compartment may provide the stimulus that maintains arterial spasm and that the consequent ischaemia aggravates the oedema, so that a vicious circle is established. 6. It is further suggested that if spasm persists in spite of the usual measures, including exploration of the artery, the distal myofascial compartment should be decompressed. Division of the deep fascia of the cubital or the popliteal fossa is not enough. 7. Such persistent arterial spasm is uncommon, and further observations are needed to define the significance of increased tension in a distal myofascial compartment