Aims. This study aimed to define the histopathology of degenerated humeral head cartilage and synovial inflammation of the glenohumeral joint in patients with omarthrosis (OmA) and cuff tear arthropathy (CTA). Additionally, the potential of immunohistochemical tissue biomarkers in reflecting the degeneration status of humeral head cartilage was evaluated. Methods. Specimens of the humeral head and synovial tissue from 12 patients with OmA, seven patients with CTA, and four body donors were processed histologically for examination using different histopathological scores. Osteochondral sections were immunohistochemically stained for collagen type I, collagen type II, collagen neoepitope C1,2C, collagen type X, and osteocalcin, prior to semiquantitative analysis. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1, MMP-3, and MMP-13 levels were analyzed in synovial fluid using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results. Cartilage degeneration of the humeral head was associated with the histological presentation of: 1) pannus overgrowing the cartilage surface; 2) pores in the subchondral bone plate; and 3) chondrocyte clusters in OmA patients. In contrast, hyperplasia of the synovial lining layer was revealed as a significant indicator of inflammatory processes predominantly in CTA. The abundancy of collagen I, collagen II, and the C1,2C neoepitope correlated significantly with the histopathological degeneration of humeral head cartilage. No evidence for differences in MMP levels between OmA and CTA patients was found. Conclusion. This study provides a comprehensive histological characterization of humeral cartilage and synovial tissue within the glenohumeral joint, both in normal and diseased states. It highlights synovitis and pannus formation as histopathological hallmarks of OmA and CTA, indicating their roles as drivers of joint inflammation and cartilage degradation, and as targets for therapeutic strategies such as rotator cuff reconstruction and synovectomy. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2024;13(10):596–610

We studied retrospectively a consecutive series of 547 shoulders in 529 patients undergoing operation for instability. In 41, the cause of instability was considered to be lateral avulsion of the capsule, including the inferior glenohumeral ligament, from the neck of the humerus, the HAGL lesion. In 35, the lesion was found at first exploration, whereas in six it was noted at revision of a previous failed procedure. In both groups, the patients were older on average than those with instability from other causes. Of the primary cases, in 33 (94.3%) the cause of the first dislocation was a violent injury; six (17.4%) had evidence of damage to the rotator cuff and/or the subscapularis. Only four (11.4%) had a Bankart lesion. In patients undergoing a primary operation in whom the cause of the first dislocation was a violent injury, who did not have a Bankart lesion and had no suggestion of multidirectional laxity, the incidence of HAGL was 39%

Surgical treatment for traumatic, anterior glenohumeral instability requires repair of the anterior band of the inferior glenohumeral ligament, usually at the site of glenoid insertion, often combined with capsuloligamentous plication. In this study, we determined the mechanical properties of this ligament and the precise anatomy of its insertion into the glenoid in fresh-frozen glenohumeral joints of cadavers. Strength was measured by tensile testing of the glenoid-soft-tissue-humerus (G-ST-H) complex. Two other specimens of the complex were frozen in the position of apprehension, serially sectioned perpendicular to the plane containing the anterior and posterior rims of the glenoid, and stained with Toluidine Blue. On tensile testing, eight G-ST-H complexes failed at the site of the glenoid insertion, representing a Bankart lesion, two at the insertion into the humerus, and two at the midsubstance. For those which failed at the glenoid attachment the mean yield load was 491.0 N and the mean ultimate load, 585.0 N. At the glenoid region, stress at yield was 7.8 ± 1.3 MPa and stress at failure, 9.2 ± 1.5 MPa. The permanent deformation, defined as the difference between yield and ultimate deformation, was only 2.3 ± 0.8 mm. The strain at yield was 13.0 ± 0.7% and at failure, 15.4 ± 1.2%; therefore permanent strain was only 2.4 ± 1.1%. Histological examination showed that there were two attachments of the anterior band of the inferior glenohumeral ligament at the site of the glenoid insertion. In one, poorly organised collagen fibres inserted into the labrum. In the other, dense collagen fibres were attached to the front of the neck of the glenoid

We have compared the functional outcome after glenohumeral fusion for the sequelae of trauma to the brachial plexus between two groups of adult patients reviewed after a mean interval of 70 months. Group A (11 patients) had upper palsy with a functional hand and group B (16 patients) total palsy with a flail hand. All 27 patients had recovered active elbow flexion against resistance before shoulder fusion. Both groups showed increased functional capabilities after glenohumeral arthrodesis and a flail hand did not influence the post-operative active range of movement. The strength of pectoralis major is a significant prognostic factor in terms of ultimate excursion of the hand and of shoulder strength. Glenohumeral arthrodesis improves function in patients who have recovered active elbow flexion after brachial plexus palsy even when the hand remains paralysed

Our aim in this prospective study was to evaluate the outcome of total shoulder replacement in the treatment of young and middle-aged active patients with primary glenohumeral osteoarthritis. We reviewed 21 patients (21 shoulders) with a mean age of 55 years (37 to 60). The mean follow-up was seven years (5 to 9). The same anatomical, third-generation, cemented implant had been used in all patients. All the patients were evaluated radiologically and clinically using the Constant and Murley score. No patients required revision. In one a tear of the supraspinatus tendon occurred. Overall, 20 patients (95%) were either very satisfied (n = 18) or satisfied (n = 2) with the outcome. Significant differences (p < 0.0001) were found for all categories of the Constant and Murley score pre- and post-operatively. The mean Constant and Murley score increased from 24.1 points (10 to 45) to 64.5 points (39 to 93), and the relative score from 30.4% (11% to 50%) to 83% (54% to 116%). No clinical or radiological signs of loosening of the implant were seen. For young and middle-aged patients with osteoarthritis, third-generation total shoulder replacement is a viable method of treatment with a low rate of complications and excellent results in the mid-term

We report the use of the reverse shoulder prosthesis in the revision of a failed shoulder hemiarthroplasty in 19 shoulders in 18 patients (7 men, 11 women) with severe pain and loss of function. The primary procedure had been undertaken for glenohumeral arthritis associated with severe rotator cuff deficiency. Statistically significant improvements were seen in pain and functional outcome. After a mean follow-up of 44 months (24 to 89), mean forward flexion improved by 26.4° and mean abduction improved by 35°. There were six prosthesis-related complications in six shoulders (32%), five of which had severe bone loss of the glenoid, proximal humerus or both. Three shoulders (16%) had non-prosthesis related complications. The use of the reverse shoulder prosthesis provides improvement in pain and function for patients with failure of a hemiarthroplasty for glenohumeral arthritis and rotator cuff deficiency. However, high rates of complications were associated with glenoid and proximal humeral bone loss

We hypothesised that a large acromial cover with an upwardly tilted glenoid fossa would be associated with degenerative rotator cuff tears (RCTs), and conversely, that a short acromion with an inferiorly inclined glenoid would be associated with glenohumeral osteoarthritis (OA). This hypothesis was tested using a new radiological parameter, the critical shoulder angle (CSA), which combines the measurements of inclination of the glenoid and the lateral extension of the acromion (the acromion index). The CSA was measured on standardised radiographs of three groups: 1) a control group of 94 asymptomatic shoulders with normal rotator cuffs and no OA; 2) a group of 102 shoulders with MRI-documented full-thickness RCTs without OA; and 3) a group of 102 shoulders with primary OA and no RCTs noted during total shoulder replacement. The mean CSA was 33.1° (26.8° to 38.6°) in the control group, 38.0° (29.5° to 43.5°) in the RCT group and 28.1° (18.6° to 35.8°) in the OA group. Of patients with a CSA > 35°, 84% were in the RCT group and of those with a CSA < 30°, 93% were in the OA group. We therefore concluded that primary glenohumeral OA is associated with significantly smaller degenerative RCTs with significantly larger CSAs than asymptomatic shoulders without these pathologies. These findings suggest that individual quantitative anatomy may imply biomechanics that are likely to induce specific types of degenerative joint disorders. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:935–41

We reviewed 80 shoulders (77 patients) at a mean follow-up of 44 months after insertion of a Grammont inverted shoulder prosthesis. Three implants had failed and had been revised. The mean Constant score had increased from 22.6 points pre-operatively to 65.6 points at review. In 96% of these shoulders there was no or only minimal pain. The mean active forward elevation increased from 73° to 138°. The integrity of teres minor is essential for the recovery of external rotation and significantly influenced the Constant score. Five cases of aseptic loosening of the glenoid and seven of dissociation of the glenoid component were noted.

This study confirms the promising early results obtained with the inverted prosthesis in the treatment of a cuff-tear arthropathy. It should be considered in the treatment of osteoarthritis with a massive tear of the cuff but should be reserved for elderly patients.

We present the long-term outcome, at a median of 18 years (12.8 to 23.5) of open posterior bone block stabilisation for recurrent posterior instability of the shoulder in a heterogenous group of 11 patients previously reported on in 2001 at a median follow-up of six years. We found that five (45%) would not have chosen the operation again, and that four (36%) had further posterior dislocation. Clinical outcome was significantly worse after 18 years than after six years of follow-up (median Rowe score of 60 versus 90 (p = 0.027)). The median Western Ontario Shoulder Index was 60% (37% to 100%) at 18 years’ follow-up, which is a moderate score. At the time of surgery four (36%) had glenohumeral radiological osteoarthritis, which was present in all after 18 years. This study showed poor long-term results of the posterior bone block procedure for posterior instability and a high rate of glenohumeral osteoarthritis although three patients with post-traumatic instability were pleased with the result of their operations

Objectives. Cadaveric models of the shoulder evaluate discrete motion segments using the glenohumeral joint in isolation over a defined trajectory. The aim of this study was to design, manufacture and validate a robotic system to accurately create three-dimensional movement of the upper body and capture it using high-speed motion cameras. Methods. In particular, we intended to use the robotic system to simulate the normal throwing motion in an intact cadaver. The robotic system consists of a lower frame (to move the torso) and an upper frame (to move an arm) using seven actuators. The actuators accurately reproduced planned trajectories. The marker setup used for motion capture was able to determine the six degrees of freedom of all involved joints during the planned motion of the end effector. Results. The testing system demonstrated high precision and accuracy based on the expected versus observed displacements of individual axes. The maximum coefficient of variation for displacement of unloaded axes was less than 0.5% for all axes. The expected and observed actual displacements had a high level of correlation with coefficients of determination of 1.0 for all axes. Conclusions. Given that this system can accurately simulate and track simple and complex motion, there is a new opportunity to study kinematics of the shoulder under normal and pathological conditions in a cadaveric shoulder model

Reversed shoulder prostheses are increasingly being used for the treatment of glenohumeral arthropathy associated with a deficient rotator cuff. These non-anatomical implants attempt to balance the joint forces by means of a semi-constrained articular surface and a medialised centre of rotation. A finite element model was used to compare a reversed prosthesis with an anatomical implant. Active abduction was simulated from 0° to 150° of elevation. With the anatomical prosthesis, the joint force almost reached the equivalence of body weight. The joint force was half this for the reversed prosthesis. The direction of force was much more vertically aligned for the reverse prosthesis, in the first 90° of abduction. With the reversed prosthesis, abduction was possible without rotator cuff muscles and required 20% less deltoid force to achieve it. This force analysis confirms the potential mechanical advantage of reversed prostheses when rotator cuff muscles are deficient

A total of 12 epileptic patients (14 shoulders) with recurrent seizures and anterior dislocations of the shoulder underwent a Latarjet procedure and were reviewed at a mean of 8.3 years (1 to 20) post-operatively. Mean forward flexion decreased from 165° (100° to 180°) to 160° (90° to 180°) (p = 0.5) and mean external rotation from 54° (10° to 90°) to 43° (5° to 75°) (p = 0.058). The mean Rowe score was 76 (35 to 100) at the final follow-up. Radiologically, all shoulders showed a glenoid-rim defect and Hill-Sachs lesions pre-operatively. Osteo-arthritic changes of the glenohumeral joint were observed in five shoulders (36%) pre-operatively and in eight shoulders (57%) post-operatively. Re-dislocation during a seizure occurred in six shoulders (43%). Five of these patients underwent revision surgery using a bone buttress from the iliac crest and two of these patients re-dislocated due to a new seizure. . Due to the unacceptably high rate of re-dislocation after surgery in these patients, the most important means of reducing the incidence of further dislocation is the medical management of the seizures. The Latarjet procedure should be reserved for the well-controlled patient with epilepsy who has recurrent anterior dislocation of the shoulder during activities of daily living

We retrospectively identified 18 consecutive patients with synovial chrondromatosis of the shoulder who had arthroscopic treatment between 1989 and 2004. Of these, 15 were available for review at a mean follow-up of 5.3 years (2.3 to 16.5). There were seven patients with primary synovial chondromatosis, but for the remainder, the condition was a result of secondary causes. The mean Constant score showed that pain and activities of daily living were the most affected categories, being only 57% and 65% of the values of the normal side. Surgery resulted in a significant improvement in the mean Constant score in these domains from 8.9 (4 to 15) to 11.3 (2 to 15) and from 12.9 (5 to 20) to 18.7 (11 to 20), respectively (unpaired t-test, p = 0.04 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Movement and strength were not significantly affected. Osteoarthritis was present in eight patients at presentation and in 11 at the final review. Recurrence of the disease with new loose bodies occurred in two patients from the primary group at an interval of three and 12 years post-operatively. In nine patients, loose bodies were also present in the bicipital groove; seven of these underwent an open bicipital debridement and tenodesis. We found that arthroscopic debridement of the glenohumeral joint and open debridement and tenodesis of the long head of biceps, when indicated, are safe and effective in relieving symptoms at medium-term review

Aims

Rotator cuff (RC) injuries are characterized by tendon rupture, muscle atrophy, retraction, and fatty infiltration, which increase injury severity and jeopardize adequate tendon repair. Epigenetic drugs, such as histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis), possess the capacity to redefine the molecular signature of cells, and they may have the potential to inhibit the transformation of the fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) within the skeletal muscle into adipocyte-like cells, concurrently enhancing the myogenic potential of the satellite cells.

Between 1998 and 2007, 22 patients with fractures of the scapula had operative treatment more than three weeks after injury. The indications for operation included displaced intra-articular fractures, medialisation of the glenohumeral joint, angular deformity, or displaced double lesions of the superior shoulder suspensory complex. Radiological and functional outcomes were obtained for 16 of 22 patients. Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, Hand (DASH) and Short form-36 scores were collected for 14 patients who were operated on after March 2002. The mean delay from injury to surgery was 30 days (21 to 57). The mean follow-up was for 27 months (12 to 72). At the last review the mean DASH score was 14 (0 to 41). Of the 16 patients with follow-up, 13 returned to their previous employment and recreational activities without restrictions. No wound complications, infection or nonunion occurred. Malunion of the scapula can be prevented by surgical treatment of fractures in patients with delayed presentation. Surgery is safe, effective, and gives acceptable functional results

Fractures of the proximal humerus can lead to malalignment of the humeral head, necrosis and post-traumatic osteoarthritis. In such cases surface replacement might be a promising option. A total of 28 shoulders with glenohumeral arthritis subsequent to a fracture underwent surface replacement arthroplasty of the humeral head in patients with a mean age of 60 years (35 to 83). On the basis of the inclination of the impacted head, post-traumatic arthritis was divided into three types: type 1, an impacted fracture of the head in an anatomical position (seven cases); type 2, a valgus impacted fracture (13 cases); type 3, a varus impacted fracture (eight cases). The outcome was measured by means of the Constant score. According to the Boileau classification of the sequelae of fractures of the proximal humerus, all 28 patients had a final result of intra-capsular category 1. The mean Constant score for the 28 shoulders increased from 23.2 points (2 to 45) pre-operatively to 55.1 points (20 to 89) at a mean of 31 months (24 to 66) post-operatively. Valgus impacted fractures had significantly better results (p < 0.039). Surface replacement arthroplasty can provide good results for patients with post-traumatic osteoarthritis of the shoulder. Their use avoids post-operative complications of the humeral shaft, such as peri-prosthetic fractures. Further surgery can be undertaken more easily as the bone stock is preserved

Replacement of the shoulder in juvenile idiopathic arthritis is not often performed and there have been no published series to date. We present nine glenohumeral hemiarthroplasties in eight patients with systemic or polyarticular juvenile idiopathic arthritis. The mean follow-up was six years (59 to 89 months). The mean age at the time of surgery was 32 years. Surgery took place at a mean of 27 years after diagnosis. The results indicated excellent relief from pain. There was restoration of useful function which deteriorated with time, in part because of progression of the systemic disease in this severely affected group. No patient has required revision to date and there has been no radiological evidence of loosening or osteolysis around the implants. We discuss the pathoanatomical challenges unique to this group. There was very little space for a prosthetic joint and, in some cases, bony deformity and the small size necessitated the use of custom-made implants

There is little published information on the health impact of frozen shoulder. The purpose of this study was to assess the functional and health-related quality of life outcomes following arthroscopic capsular release (ACR) for contracture of the shoulder. Between January 2010 and January 2012 all patients who had failed non-operative treatment including anti-inflammatory medication, physiotherapy and glenohumeral joint injections for contracture of the shoulder and who subsequently underwent an ACR were enrolled in the study. A total of 100 patients were eligible; 68 underwent ACR alone and 32 had ACR with a subacromial decompression (ASD). ACR resulted in a highly significant improvement in the range of movement and functional outcome, as measured by the Oxford shoulder score and EuroQol EQ-5D index. The mean cost of a quality-adjusted life year (QALY) for an ACR and ACR with an ASD was £2563 and £3189, respectively. . ACR is thus a cost-effective procedure that can restore relatively normal function and health-related quality of life in most patients with a contracture of the shoulder within six months after surgery; and the beneficial effects are not related to the duration of the presenting symptoms. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:942–6

We performed eight osteochondral autologous transplantations from the knee joint to the shoulder. All patients (six men, two women; mean age 43.1 years) were documented prospectively. In each patient the stage of the osteochondral lesion was Outerbridge grade IV with a mean size of the affected area of 150 mm. 2. All patients were assessed by using the Constant score for the shoulder and the Lysholm score for the knee. Standard radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging and second-look arthroscopy were used to assess the presence of glenohumeral osteoarthritis and the integrity of the grafts. After a mean of 32.6 months (8 to 47), the mean Constant score increased significantly. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed good osseointegration of the osteochondral plugs and congruent articular cartilage at the transplantation site in all but one patient. Second-look arthroscopy performed in two cases revealed a macroscopically good integration of the autograft with an intact articular surface. Osteochondral autologous transplantation in the shoulder appears to offer good clinical results for treating full-thickness osteochondral lesions of the glenohumeral joint. However, our study suggests that the development of osteoarthritis and the progression of pre-existing osteoarthritic changes cannot be altered by this technique

We compared six patients with a mean age of 70 years (49 to 80) with severe bilateral, painful glenohumeral joint destruction who underwent a single-stage bilateral total shoulder replacement, with eight patients of mean age 61 years (22 to 89) who underwent bilateral total shoulder replacement in two stages, at a mean interval of 18 months (6 to 43). The overall function, pain and strength improved significantly in both groups. The subjective shoulder value, relative Constant score, active external rotation and the strength were improved significantly more in the single-stage group. Active elevation, abduction and overall function improved, significantly more in the single-stage group. Both the total duration of hospitalisation and the time off work per shoulder were substantially shorter in the single-stage group. The overall rate of complication was lower in the single-stage group. Our findings indicated that single-stage bilateral total shoulder replacement yielded significantly better clinical results with shorter hospitalisation and rehabilitation than staged replacement, and was not associated with any increase in complications