A pronation deformity of the forearm following an obstetric brachial plexus injury causes functional and cosmetic disability. We evaluated the results of pronator teres transfer to correct their deformity in 14 children treated over a period of four years. The mean age at surgery was 7.6 years (5 to 15). The indication for surgery in each case was impairment of active supination in a forearm that could be passively supinated provided that there was no medial contracture of the shoulder and normal function of the hand. The median follow-up was 20.4 months (8 to 42). No patient was lost to follow-up. Qualitative results were also assessed. The median active supination improved from 5° (0° to 10°) to 75° (70° to 80°) with no loss of pronation. A passively correctible pronation contracture can be corrected safely and effectively by the transfer of pronator teres

Inability to actively supinate the forearm makes common activities of daily living and certain vocational activities awkward or impossible to perform. A total of 11 patients with deficient supination of the arm underwent transfer of the tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris to the split tendon of brachioradialis with its bony insertion into the radial styloid left intact. Active supination beyond neutral rotation was a mean of 37.2° (25° to 49.5°) at a minimum follow-up of three years, representing a significant improvement (95% confidence interval 25 to 50, p < 0.001). Functional evaluation of the hand after this transfer showed excellent and good results in ten patients and fair in one. The split tendon of brachioradialis as an insertion for transfer of the flexor carpi ulnaris appears to provide adequate supination of the forearm without altering the available pronation and avoids the domination of wrist extension sometimes associated with transfers of the flexor carpi ulnaris to the radial extensors of the wrist

We report two cases of bilateral chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CCS) in the forearmand hand. Measurement of the intramuscular pressure was useful for diagnosis. These two cases illustrate that bilateral CCS should be suspected in patients complaining of bilateral exercise-induced pain in the anconeus muscle, the forearms, the thenar and hypothenar regions and in the first dorsal interosseous muscle. Fasciotomy relieved the pain in both cases

We report the results of performing a pronating osteotomy of the radius, coupled with other soft-tissue procedures, as part of an upper limb functional surgery programme in tetraplegic patients with supination contractures.

In total 12 patients were reviewed with a mean follow-up period of 60 months (12 to 109). Pre-operatively, passive movement ranged from a mean of 19.2° pronation (−70° to 80°) to 95.8° supination (80° to 140°). A pronating osteotomy of the radius was then performed with release of the interosseous membrane. Extension of the elbow was restored postoperatively in 11 patients, with key-pinch reconstruction in nine.

At the final follow-up every patient could stabilise their hand in pronation, with a mean active range of movement of 79.6° (60° to 90°) in pronation and 50.4° (0° to 90°) in supination. No complications were observed. The mean strength of extension of the elbow was 2.7 (2 to 3) MRC grading.

Pronating osteotomy stabilises the hand in pronation while preserving supination, if a complete release of the interosseous membrane is also performed. This technique fits well into surgical programmes for enhancing upper limb function.

Linburg-Comstock syndrome is characterised by an anomalous tendon slip from the flexor pollicis longus to the flexor digitorum profundus, usually of the index finger. An incidence as high as 60% to 70% has been reported. Post-traumatic inflammation of inter-tendinous connections between the flexor pollicis longus and flexor digitorum profundus, usually of the index finger, may cause unexplained chronic pain in the distal forearm. A total of 11 patients (eight females, three males), mean age 29.1 years (14 to 47) with a clinical diagnosis of Linburg-Comstock syndrome underwent surgical release of the inter-tendinous connection. The mean follow-up was for 27 months (2 to 48). Ten patients reported excellent relief of pain in the forearm, with independent flexion of flexor pollicis longus and flexor digitorum profundus to the index finger. Surgical release was an effective treatment for the Linburg-Comstock syndrome in this series

We reviewed 42 consecutive children with a supination deformity of the forearm complicating severe birth lesions of the brachial plexus. The overall incidence over the study period was 6.9% (48 of 696). It was absent in those in Narakas group I (27.6) and occurred in 5.7% of group II (13 of 229), 9.6% of group III (11 of 114) and 23.4% of group IV (18 of 77). Concurrent deformities at the shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand were always present because of muscular imbalance from poor recovery of C5 and C7, inconsistent recovery of C8 and T1 and good recovery of C6. Early surgical correction improved the function of the upper limb and hand, but there was a tendency to recurrence. Pronation osteotomy placed the hand in a functional position, and increased the arc of rotation of the forearm. The supination deformity recurred in 40% (17 of 42) of those treated by pronation osteotomy alone, probably because of remodelling of the growing bone. Children should be followed up until skeletal maturity, and the parents counselled on the likelihood of multiple operations

Our aim was to determine if a tourniquet placed on the forearm has any advantage in clinical practice over the usual position on the upper arm. We randomised 50 patients who were undergoing an open operation for carpal tunnel syndrome under local anaesthesia into two groups. One had a tourniquet on the upper arm and the other on the forearm. The blood pressure, pulse, and level of pain were recorded at intervals of five minutes during the operation. The surgeons were also asked to evaluate the quality of the anaesthesia, the bloodless field, and the site of the tourniquet. The patients tolerated the tourniquet on the upper arm and forearm equally well. The surgeons had some difficulties when it was placed on the forearm. We therefore recommend placement of a tourniquet on the upper arm for operations on the hand and wrist which are carried out under local anaesthesia

We present the results of a retrospective series of 41 Sauve-Kapandji procedures carried out for complications of fractures of the distal radius. All the operations were undertaken by one surgeon with a mean follow-up of 32 months. A total of 37 patients was available for clinical review. The indications for surgery were pain on the ulnar side of the wrist and decreased rotation of the forearm. Intraperiosteal and extraperiosteal techniques were used for resection of the ulna, with no difference in outcome. Patients were assessed for pain, rotation of the forearm and complications. A Mayo Modified Wrist Score was used. Pain was improved in 25 of the 37 patients, and unchanged in ten. Rotation of the forearm returned to within 7° of the uninjured side. The results are discussed in relation to the presence of preoperative malunion of the distal radius, age and the functional outcome. Age is not a contraindication for this procedure

We describe the results of surgical treatment in a prospective study of 183 consecutive cases of subluxation (101) and dislocation (82) of the shoulder secondary to obstetric brachial plexus palsy between 1995 and 2000. Neurological recovery was rated ‘good’ or ‘useful’ in all children, whose lesions fell into groups 1, 2 or 3 of the Narakas classification. The mean age at operation was 47 months (3 to 204). The mean follow-up was 40 months (24 to 124). The mean gain in function was 3.6 levels (9.4 to 13) using the Mallet score and 2 (2.1 to 4.1) on the Gilbert score. The mean active global range of shoulder movement was increased by 73°; the mean range of active lateral rotation by 58° and that of supination of the forearm by 51°. Active medial rotation was decreased by a mean of 10°. There were 20 failures. The functional outcome is related to the severity of the neurological lesion, the duration of the dislocation and onset of deformity

Excision is not a suitable treatment for all comminuted fractures of the radial head. In elbows where instability can be predicted, a replacement arthroplasty of the radial head is more effective. The aim of this paper was to present the medium-term results of the Judet floating radial head prosthesis. This operation was performed on 14 patients between 1992 and 2003, of whom 12 were reviewed at a mean follow-up of five years and three months (1 to 12 years). The outcome was assessed using the Mayo elbow performance score and a modified Disability of Arm Shoulder Hand (DASH) questionnaire. There were six excellent results, four good, one fair and one poor, as graded by the Mayo score. The mean DASH score was 23.9/100 (0 to 65.8/100). The only significant complication occurred in one patient who developed a severe complex regional pain syndrome. There were no patients with secondary instability of the elbow, implant loosening, cubitus valgus, osteoporosis of the capitellum, or pain in the forearm and wrist. Our experience, combined with that of other authors using this device, has encouraged us to continue using the Judet prosthesis in comminuted fractures of the elbow where instability is a potential problem

Lesions of the anterior interosseous nerve in the forearm are rare and often misdiagnosed as tendon injuries. A consecutive series of 13 patients with this condition referred for electrodiagnosis is reviewed. Only three had originally a correct clinical diagnosis and three were initially considered to have tendon ruptures. Five cases were of mechanical origin and seven due to ‘neuritis’. All showed electrophysiological abnormalities, most commonly involving the pronator quadratus. Late spontaneous recovery was common, and only one case had surgical exploration

We performed a lateral approach for the release of post-traumatic stiffness of the elbow in 22 patients using a modified technique designed to spare the lateral ligaments. They were reviewed after a mean interval of 26 months. The total humeroulnar joint movement had increased from a mean of 74° to 129° and forearm rotation from a mean of 135° to 159°. Both pain and function in the elbow had improved significantly. This modified lateral approach allows release of post-traumatic contracture without disruption of the lateral collateral ligament or the origins of the extensor tendon at the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. The advantages include a simplified surgical procedure, less operative morbidity, and unrestricted rehabilitation

The Madelung deformity can result in pain and decreased function of the wrist and hand. None of the surgical techniques available has been shown consistently to improve grip strength, range of movement or relieve pain. In this prospective study we have treated 18 patients with the Madelung deformity (25 wrists) by wedge subtraction osteotomy of the radius and shortening of the ulna. Our results show statistically significant improvement in grip strength and range of movement of the wrist and forearm. Pain improved in 80% of the patients and 88% were satisfied with the appearance. One patient had a wound infection and another developed reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Two had some recurrence due to continued growth of the ulna and it is recommended that the procedure be delayed until skeletal maturity, or else combined with epiphysiodesis of the ulna

We performed a prospective study in 186 patients with a minimum follow-up of two years in order to attempt to predict successful major re-implantation of the upper limb. There were 137 men and 49 women with 24 amputations of the palm, 75 of the wrist, 50 of the forearm, 9 disarticulations through the elbow, and 28 amputations through the upper arm. The degree of injury to the amputated segment and the stump were good predictors of the rate of success and the final outcome. Adequate preservation, contraction of the muscle in the amputated part after stimulation, the level of injury and a smoking habit were fair indicators, but the serum potassium concentration in the amputated segment was the best objective predictor. When it is higher than 6.5 mmol/l 30 minutes after re-perfusion, re-implantation should be avoided. A high systemic venous serum potassium concentration was also found before clinical signs of the re-perfusion syndrome were seen

Although the outcome of fractures of the distal radius is traditionally assessed using objective clinical variables such as grip strength and range of movement of the wrist, the extent to which they reflect function and outcomes of importance for the patient is uncertain. This may cause considerable inconsistencies in the assessment of outcome using current scoring systems. We prospectively studied 31 patients recovering from unstable fractures of the distal radius in order to investigate the association between objective variables and the level of post-traumatic disability of the wrist as measured by the patient-rated wrist evaluation (PRWE) score. Multiple regression showed considerable differences in the extent to which limitations in specific objective clinical variables reflected the level of disability of the wrist. Grip strength was shown to be a significant predictor of the PRWE score (regression coefficient −1.09, 95% confidence interval −1.76 to −0.42, p < 0.01) and thus appears to be a sensitive indicator of return of function of the wrist. Forearm rotation and flexion and extension of the wrist were not significantly associated with the PRWE score. These observations should be taken into account during the evaluation of methods of treatment and in constructing future clinical outcome scoring systems

Most patients with a nightstick fracture of the ulna are treated conservatively. Various techniques of immobilisation or early mobilisation have been studied. We performed a systematic review of all published randomised controlled trials and observational studies that have assessed the outcome of these fractures following above- or below-elbow immobilisation, bracing and early mobilisation. We searched multiple electronic databases, related bibliographies and other studies. We included 27 studies comprising 1629 fractures in the final analysis. The data relating to the time to radiological union and the rates of delayed union and nonunion could be pooled and analysed statistically.

We found that early mobilisation produced the shortest radiological time to union (mean 8.0 weeks) and the lowest mean rate of nonunion (0.6%). Fractures treated with above- or below-elbow immobilisation and braces had longer mean radiological times to union (9.2 weeks, 9.2 weeks and 8.7 weeks, respectively) and higher mean rates of nonunion (3.8%, 2.1% and 0.8%, respectively). There was no statistically significant difference in the rate of non- or delayed union between those treated by early mobilisation and the three forms of immobilisation (p = 0.142 to p = 1.000, respectively). All the studies had significant biases, but until a robust randomised controlled trial is undertaken the best advice for the treatment of undisplaced or partially displaced nightstick fractures appears to be early mobilisation, with a removable forearm support for comfort as required.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:952–9.

The zona conoidea comprises the area of the lateral trochlear ridge of the humerus. The purpose of this study is to reintroduce this term ‘zona conoidea’ to the discussion of the human elbow and to investigate its significance in the development of osteoarthritis of the elbow.

The upper extremities of 12 cadavers were prepared. With the forearm in neutral, pronation and supination, the distance between the bevel of the radial head and zona conoidea was inspected. A total of 12 healthy volunteers had a CT scan. The distance between the zona conoidea and the bevelled rim of the radial head was measured in these positions.

In the anatomical specimens, early osteo-arthritic changes were identified in the posteromedial bevelled rim of the radial head, and the corresponding zona conoidea in supination. Measurement in the CT study showed that in full supination, the distance between the bevel of the radial head and the zona conoidea was at a minimum.

This study suggests that the significant contact between the bevel of the radial head and the zona conoidea in supination is associated with the initiation of osteoarthritis of the elbow in this area.

Aims

The aim of this study was to compare the pain caused by the application of a tourniquet after exsanguination of the upper limb with that occurring after simple elevation.

Mason type III fractures of the radial head are treated by open reduction and internal fixation, resection or prosthetic joint replacement. When internal fixation is performed, fixation of the radial head to the shaft is difficult and implant-related complications are common. Furthermore, problems of devascularisation of the radial head can result from fixation of the plate to the radial neck.

In a small retrospective study, the treatment of Mason type III fractures with fixation of the radial neck in 13 cases (group 2) was compared with 12 cases where no fixation was performed (group 1). The mean clinical and radiological follow-up was four years (1 to 9). The Broberg-Morrey index showed excellent results in both groups. Degenerative radiological changes were seen more frequently in group 2, and removal of the implant was necessary in seven of 13 cases.

Post-operative evaluation of these two different techniques revealed similar ranges of movement and functional scores. We propose that anatomical reconstruction of the radial head without metalwork fixation to the neck is preferable, and the outcome is the same as that achieved with the conventional technique. In addition degenerative changes of the elbow joint may develop less frequently, and implant removal is not necessary.

Restoration of hand function is rarely achieved after a complete closed traction lesion of the supraclavicular brachial plexus. We describe the injury, treatment, rehabilitation and long-term results of two patients who regained good function of the upper limb and useful function in the hand after such an injury. Successful repairs were performed within six days of injury. Tinel’s sign proved accurate in predicting the ruptures and the distribution of pain was accurate in predicting avulsion. The severe pain that began on the day of injury resolved with the onset of muscle function.

Recovery of muscle function preceded recovery of sensation. Recovery of the function of C and Aδ fibres was the slowest of all.