Our aim was to determine whether the length and function of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle were affected by separating it from its soft tissue connections. We measured the length of flexor carpi ulnaris before and after its dissection in ten patients with cerebral palsy. After tenotomy, tetanic contraction shortened the muscle by a mean of 8 mm. Subsequent dissection to separate it from all soft tissue connections, resulted in a further mean shortening of 17 mm (p < 0.001). This indicated that the dissected connective tissue had been strong enough to maintain the length of the contracting muscle. Passive extension of the wrist still lengthened the muscle after tenotomy, whereas this excursion significantly decreased after subsequent dissection. We conclude that the connective tissue envelope, which may be dissected during tendon transfer of flexor carpi ulnaris may act as a myofascial pathway for the transmission of force. This may have clinical implications for the outcome after tendon transfer

Methods

Between 2005 and 2012, 50 patients (23 female, 27 male) with nonunion of the humeral shaft were included in this retrospective study. The mean age was 51.3 years (14 to 88). The patients had a mean of 1.5 prior operations (sd 1.2;1 to 8).

All patients were assessed according to a specific risk score in order to devise an optimal and individual therapy plan consistent with the Diamond Concept. In 32 cases (64%), a change in the osteosynthesis to an angular stable locking compression plate was performed. According to the individual risk an additional bone graft and/or bone morphogenetic protein-7 (BMP-7) were applied.

Instability after arthroplasty of the shoulder is difficult to correct surgically. Soft-tissue procedures and revision surgery using unconstrained anatomical components are associated with a high rate of failure. The purpose of this study was to determine the results of revision of an unstable anatomical shoulder arthroplasty to a reverse design prosthesis. Between 2004 and 2007, 33 unstable anatomical shoulder arthroplasties were revised to a reverse design. The mean age of the patients was 71 years (53 to 86) and their mean follow-up was 42 months (25 to 71). The mean time to revision was 26 months (4 to 164). Pain scores improved significantly (pre-operative visual analogue scale (VAS) of 7.2 (sd 1.6); most recent VAS 2.2 (sd 1.9); p = 0.001). There was a statistically significant increase in mean active forward elevation from 40.2° (sd 27.3) to 97.0° (sd 36.2) (p = 0.001). There was no significant difference in internal (p = 0.93) or external rotation (p = 0.40). Radiological findings included notching in five shoulders (15%) and heterotopic ossification of the inferior capsular region in three (9%). At the last follow-up 31 shoulders (94%) were stable. The remaining two shoulders dislocated at 2.5 weeks and three months post-operatively, respectively. According to the Neer rating system, there were 13 excellent (40%), ten satisfactory (30%) and ten unsatisfactory results (30%). Revision of hemiarthroplasty or anatomical total shoulder replacement for instability using a reverse design prosthesis gives good short-term results.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:668–72.

We assessed the short- to mid-term survival of metallic press-fit radial head prostheses in patients with radial head fractures and acute traumatic instability of the elbow.

The medical records of 42 patients (16 males, 26 females) with a mean age of 56 years (23 to 85) with acute unstable elbow injuries, including a fracture of the radial head requiring metallic replacement of the radial head, were reviewed retrospectively. Survival of the prosthesis was assessed from the radiographs of 37 patients after a mean follow-up of 50 months (12 to 107). The functional results of 31 patients were assessed using range-of-movement, Mayo elbow performance score (MEPS), Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score and the RAND 36-item health survey.

At the most recent follow-up 25 prostheses were still well fixed, nine had been removed because of loosening, and three remained implanted but were loose. The mean time from implantation to loosening was 11 months (2 to 24). Radiolucent lines that developed around the prosthesis before removal were mild in three patients, moderate in one and severe in five. Range of movement parameters and mass grip strength were significantly lower in the affected elbow than in the unaffected side. The mean MEPS score was 86 (40 to 100) and the mean DASH score was 23 (0 to 81). According to RAND-36 scores, patients had more pain and lower physical function scores than normal population values.

Loosening of press-fit radial head prostheses is common, occurs early, often leads to severe osteolysis of the proximal radius, and commonly requires removal of the prosthesis.

Reverse total shoulder replacement (RTSR) depends on adequate deltoid function for a successful outcome. However, the anterior deltoid and/or axillary nerve may be damaged due to prior procedures or injury. The purpose of this study was to determine the compensatory muscle forces required for scapular plane elevation following RTSR when the anterior deltoid is deficient. The soft tissues were removed from six cadaver shoulders, except for tendon attachments. After implantation of the RTSR, the shoulders were mounted on a custom-made shoulder simulator to determine the mean force in each muscle required to achieve 30° and 60° of scapular plane elevation. Two conditions were tested: 1) Control with an absent supraspinatus and infraspinatus; and 2) Control with anterior deltoid deficiency. Anterior deltoid deficiency resulted in a mean increase of 195% in subscapularis force at 30° when compared with the control (p = 0.02). At 60°, the subscapularis force increased a mean of 82% (p < 0.001) and the middle deltoid force increased a mean of 26% (p = 0.04).

Scapular plane elevation may still be possible following an RTSR in the setting of anterior deltoid deficiency. When the anterior deltoid is deficient, there is a compensatory increase in the force required by the subscapularis and middle deltoid. Attempts to preserve the subscapularis, if present, might maximise post-operative function.

The purpose of this study was to assess the clinical and radiological outcomes of dorsal intercarpal ligament capsulodesis for the treatment of static scapholunate instability at a minimum follow-up of four years. A total of 59 patients who underwent capsulodesis for this condition were included in a retrospective analysis after a mean of 8.25 years (4.3 to 12). A total of eight patients underwent a salvage procedure at a mean of 2.33 years (0.67 to 7.6) and were excluded. The mean range of extension/flexion was 88° (15° to 135°) and of ulnar/radial deviation was 38° (0° to 75°) at final follow-up. The mean Disabilities of the Arm Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score and Mayo wrist scores were 28 (0 to 85) and 61 (0 to 90), respectively. After significant improvement immediately post-operatively (p < 0.001 and p = 0.001, respectively), the mean scapholunate and radiolunate angles deteriorated to 70° (40° to 90°) and 8° (-15° to 25°), respectively, at final follow-up, which were not significantly different from their pre-operative values (p = 0.6 and p = 0.4, respectively). The mean carpal height index decreased significantly from 1.53 (1.38 to 1.65) to 1.48 (1.29 to 1.65) indicating progressive carpal collapse (p < 0.001); 40 patients (78%) had radiological evidence of degenerative arthritis.

Capsulodesis did not maintain carpal reduction over time. Although the consequent ongoing scapholunate instability resulted in early arthritic degeneration, most patients had acceptable long-term function of the wrist.

We describe the results of surgical treatment in a prospective study of 183 consecutive cases of subluxation (101) and dislocation (82) of the shoulder secondary to obstetric brachial plexus palsy between 1995 and 2000. Neurological recovery was rated ‘good’ or ‘useful’ in all children, whose lesions fell into groups 1, 2 or 3 of the Narakas classification. The mean age at operation was 47 months (3 to 204). The mean follow-up was 40 months (24 to 124).

The mean gain in function was 3.6 levels (9.4 to 13) using the Mallet score and 2 (2.1 to 4.1) on the Gilbert score. The mean active global range of shoulder movement was increased by 73°; the mean range of active lateral rotation by 58° and that of supination of the forearm by 51°. Active medial rotation was decreased by a mean of 10°. There were 20 failures. The functional outcome is related to the severity of the neurological lesion, the duration of the dislocation and onset of deformity.

We present the outcome of 47 Souter-Strathclyde replacements of the elbow with a mean follow-up of 82 months (12 to 129). The clinical results were assessed using a condition-specific outcome measure. The mean total score (maximum 100) before the operation was 47.21 and improved to 79.92 (p < 0.001). The mean pain score (maximum 50) improved from 21.41 to 46.70 (p < 0.001) and the mean functional component of the score (maximum 30) from 11.19 to 18.65 (p < 0.001). There was negligible change in the score for the range of movement although a significant improvement in mean flexion from 124° to 136° was noted (p < 0.001).

Revision surgery was required in four patients, for dislocation, wound dehiscence and early infection in one, late infection in two and aseptic loosening in one. The cumulative survival was 75% at nine years for all causes of failure and 97% at ten years for aseptic loosening alone. Our study demonstrates the value of the Souter-Strathclyde total elbow arthroplasty in providing relief from pain and functional improvement in rheumatoid patients.

The zona conoidea comprises the area of the lateral trochlear ridge of the humerus. The purpose of this study is to reintroduce this term ‘zona conoidea’ to the discussion of the human elbow and to investigate its significance in the development of osteoarthritis of the elbow.

The upper extremities of 12 cadavers were prepared. With the forearm in neutral, pronation and supination, the distance between the bevel of the radial head and zona conoidea was inspected. A total of 12 healthy volunteers had a CT scan. The distance between the zona conoidea and the bevelled rim of the radial head was measured in these positions.

In the anatomical specimens, early osteo-arthritic changes were identified in the posteromedial bevelled rim of the radial head, and the corresponding zona conoidea in supination. Measurement in the CT study showed that in full supination, the distance between the bevel of the radial head and the zona conoidea was at a minimum.

This study suggests that the significant contact between the bevel of the radial head and the zona conoidea in supination is associated with the initiation of osteoarthritis of the elbow in this area.

The use of passive stretching of the elbow after arthrolysis is controversial. We report the results of open arthrolysis in 81 patients. Prospectively collected outcome data with a minimum follow-up of one year were analysed. All patients had sustained an intra-articular fracture initially and all procedures were performed by the same surgeon under continuous brachial plexus block anaesthesia and with continuous passive movement (CPM) used post-operatively for two to three days. CPM was used to maintain the movement achieved during surgery and passive stretching was not used at any time. A senior physiotherapist assessed all the patients at regular intervals. The mean range of movement (ROM) improved from 69° to 109° and the function and pain of the upper limb improved from 32 to 16 and from 20 to 10, as assessed by the Disabilities of the Arm Shoulder and Hand score and a visual analogue scale, respectively. The greatest improvement was obtained in the stiffest elbows: nine patients with a pre-operative ROM < 30° achieved a mean post-operative ROM of 92° (55° to 125°). This study demonstrates that in patients with a stiff elbow after injury, good results may be obtained after open elbow arthrolysis without using passive stretching during rehabilitation.

We undertook this study to determine the minimum amount of coronoid necessary to stabilise an otherwise intact elbow joint. Regan–Morrey types II and III, plus medial and lateral oblique coronoid fractures, collectively termed type IV fractures, were simulated in nine fresh cadavers. An electromagnetic tracking system defined the three-dimensional stability of the ulna relative to the humerus. The coronoid surface area accounts for 59% of the anterior articulation. Alteration in valgus, internal and external rotation occurred only with a type III coronoid fracture, accounting for 68% of the coronoid and 40% of the entire articular surface. A type II fracture removed 42% of the coronoid articulation and 25% of the entire articular surface but was associated with valgus and external rotational changes only when the radial head was removed, thereby removing 67% of the articular surface.

We conclude that all type III fractures, as defined here, are unstable, even with intact ligaments and a radial head. However, a type II deficiency is stable unless the radial head is removed. Our study suggests that isolated medial-oblique or lateral-oblique fractures, and even a type II fracture with intact ligaments and a functional radial head, can be clinically stable, which is consistent with clinical observation.

We studied 11 patients (14 elbows) with gross rheumatoid deformity of the elbow, treated by total arthroplasty using the Kudo type-5 unlinked prosthesis, and who were evaluated between five and 11 years after operation. Massive bone defects were augmented by autogenous bone grafts. There were no major complications such as infection, subluxation or loosening. In most elbows relief from pain and stability were achieved. The results, according to the Mayo Elbow Performance Score, were excellent in eight, good in five and fair in one. In most elbows there was minimal or no resorption of the grafted bone. There were no radiolucent lines around the stems of the cementless components. This study shows that even highly unstable rheumatoid elbows can be replaced successfully using an unlinked prosthesis, with augmentation by grafting for major defects of bone.

We evaluated the biomechanical properties of two different methods of fixation for unstable fractures of the proximal humerus. Biomechanical testing of the two groups, locking plate alone (LP), and locking plate with a fibular strut graft (LPSG), was performed using seven pairs of human cadaveric humeri. Cyclical loads between 10 N and 80 N at 5 Hz were applied for 1 000 000 cycles. Immediately after cycling, an increasing axial load was applied at a rate of displacement of 5 mm/min. The displacement of the construct, maximum failure load, stiffness and mode of failure were compared.

The displacement was significantly less in the LPSG group than in the LP group (p = 0.031). All maximum failure loads and measures of stiffness in the LPSG group were significantly higher than those in the LP group (p = 0.024 and p = 0.035, respectively). In the LP group, varus collapse and plate bending were seen. In the LPSG group, the humeral head cut out and the fibular strut grafts fractured. No broken plates or screws were seen in either group.

We conclude that strut graft augmentation significantly increases both the maximum failure load and the initial stiffness of this construct compared with a locking plate alone.

Sixteen patients who underwent a revision operation for nonunion of fractures of the distal humerus following previous internal fixation were reviewed at a mean follow-up of 39 months (8 to 69).

The Mayo elbow performance score was excellent in 11, good in two, fair in two and poor in one. In 15 patients union was achieved and in one with an infected nonunion a subsequent bone graft was necessary in order to obtain union.

Age, gender, a history of smoking, mechanism of the injury and the AO classification of the initial fracture did not correlate with the development of nonunion. In 12 patients (75%), the initial fixation was assessed as being suboptimal. The primary surgery was regarded as adequate in only three patients. Our findings suggest that the most important determinant of nonunion of a distal humeral fracture after surgery is the adequacy of fixation.

We present the long-term outcome, at a median of 18 years (12.8 to 23.5) of open posterior bone block stabilisation for recurrent posterior instability of the shoulder in a heterogenous group of 11 patients previously reported on in 2001 at a median follow-up of six years.

We found that five (45%) would not have chosen the operation again, and that four (36%) had further posterior dislocation. Clinical outcome was significantly worse after 18 years than after six years of follow-up (median Rowe score of 60 versus 90 (p = 0.027)). The median Western Ontario Shoulder Index was 60% (37% to 100%) at 18 years’ follow-up, which is a moderate score. At the time of surgery four (36%) had glenohumeral radiological osteoarthritis, which was present in all after 18 years.

This study showed poor long-term results of the posterior bone block procedure for posterior instability and a high rate of glenohumeral osteoarthritis although three patients with post-traumatic instability were pleased with the result of their operations.

The outcome of surgery in patients with medial epicondylitis of the elbow is less favourable in those with co-existent symptoms from the ulnar nerve. We wanted to know whether we could successfully treat such patients by using musculofascial lengthening of the flexor-pronator origin with simultaneous deep transposition of the ulnar nerve. We retrospectively reviewed 19 patients who were treated in this way. Seven had grade I and 12 had grade IIa ulnar neuropathy. At a mean follow-up of 38 months (24 to 48), the mean visual analogue scale pain scores improved from 3.7 to 0.3 at rest, from 6.6 to 2.1 with activities of daily living, and from 7.9 to 2.3 at work or sports, and the mean disabilities of the arm, shoulder and hand scores improved from 42.2 to 23.5.

These results suggest that this technique can be effective in treating patients with medial epicondylitis and coexistent ulnar nerve symptoms.

A prospective series of 32 cases with tuberculosis of the hand and wrist is presented. The mean age of the patients was 23.9 years (3 to 65), 12 had bony disease and 20 primarily soft-tissue involvement. The metacarpal of the little finger was the most commonly involved bone. Pain and swelling were the usual presenting features and discharging sinuses were seen in three cases.

All patients were given anti-tubercular chemotherapy with four drugs. Operative treatment in the form of open or arthroscopic debridement, or incision and drainage of abscesses, was performed in those cases where no response was seen after eight weeks of ATT. Hand function was evaluated by the modified score of Green and O’Brien. The mean was 58.3 (25 to 80) before treatment and 90.5 (80 to 95) at the end. The mean follow-up was for 22.4 months (6 to 43). Conservative treatment was successful in 24 patients (75%). Eight who did not respond to chemotherapy within eight weeks required surgery.

Although tuberculosis of hand has a varied presentation, the majority of lesions respond to conservative treatment.

We have investigated the mid-term outcome of total shoulder replacement using a keeled cemented glenoid component and a modern cementing technique with regard to the causes of failure and loosening of the components.

Between 1997 and 2003 we performed 96 total shoulder replacements on 88 patients, 24 men and 64 women with a mean age of 69.7 years (31 to 82). The minimum follow-up was five years and at the time of review 87 shoulders (77 patients) were examined at a mean follow-up of 89.1 months (60 to 127). Cumulative survival curves were generated with re-operations (accomplished and planned), survivorship of the proshesis, loosening of the glenoid (defined as tilt > 5° or subsidence > 5 mm), the presence of radiolucent lines and a Constant score of < 30 as the endpoints.

There were two re-operations not involving revision of the implants and the survival rate of the prosthesis was 100.0% for the follow-up period, with an absolute Constant score of > 30 as the endpoint the survival rate was 98%. Radiological glenoid loosening was 9% after five years, and 33% after nine years. There was an incidence of 8% of radiolucent lines in more than three of six zones in the immediate post-operative period, of 37.0% after the first year which increased to 87.0% after nine years. There was no correlation between the score of Boileau and the total Constant score at the latest follow-up, but there was correlation between glenoid loosening and pain (p = 0.001).

We found that total shoulder replacement had an excellent mid-term survivorship and clinical outcome. The surgical and cementing techniques were related to the decrease in radiolucent lines around the glenoid compared with earlier studies. One concern, however, was the fact that radiolucent lines increased over time and there was a rate of glenoid loosening of 9% after five years and 33% after nine years. This suggests that the design of the glenoid component, and the implantation and cementing techniques may need further improvement.

We describe the longer term clinical and radiological findings in a prospectively followed series of 49 rheumatoid patients (58 shoulders) who had undergone Neer II total shoulder replacement. The early and intermediate results have been published previously.

At a mean follow-up of 19.8 years (16.5 to 23.8) 14 shoulders survived. Proximal migration of the humeral component was associated with progressive loosening of the glenoid and humeral components, but was independent of the state of the rotator cuff at the time of operation. Despite these changes the range of movement was preserved. Most patients had little or no pain in the shoulder, could sleep undisturbed and could attend to personal hygiene and grooming.

We report the use of a free vascularised iliac bone graft in the treatment of 21 patients (19 men and 2 women) with an avascular nonunion of the scaphoid in which conventional bone grafting had previously failed. The mean age of the patients was 32 years (23 to 46) and the dominant wrist was affected in 14. The mean interval from fracture to the vascularised bone grafting was 39 months (9 to 62). Pre-operative MRI showed no contrast enhancement in the proximal fragment in any patient. Fracture union was assessed radiologically or with CT scans if the radiological appearances were inconclusive.

At a mean follow-up of 5.6 years (2 to 11) union was obtained in 16 patients. The remaining five patients with a persistent nonunion continued to experience pain, reduced grip strength and limited range of wrist movement. In the successfully treated patients the grip strength and range of movement did not recover to match the uninjured side.

Prevention of progressive carpal collapse, the absence of donor site morbidity, good subjective results and pain relief, justifies this procedure in the treatment of recalcitrant nonunion of the scaphoid.