The purpose of this study was to identify factors that predict implant cut-out after cephalomedullary nailing of intertrochanteric and subtrochanteric hip fractures, and to test the significance of calcar referenced tip-apex distance (CalTAD) as a predictor for cut-out.

We retrospectively reviewed 170 consecutive fractures that had undergone cephalomedullary nailing. Of these, 77 met the inclusion criteria of a non-pathological fracture with a minimum of 80 days radiological follow-up (mean 408 days; 81 days to 4.9 years). The overall cut-out rate was 13% (10/77).

The significant parameters in the univariate analysis were tip-apex distance (TAD) (p <  0.001), CalTAD (p = 0.001), cervical angle difference (p = 0.004), and lag screw placement in the anteroposterior (AP) view (Parker’s ratio index) (p = 0.003). Non-significant parameters were age (p = 0.325), gender (p = 1.000), fracture side (p = 0.507), fracture type (AO classification) (p = 0.381), Singh Osteoporosis Index (p = 0.575), lag screw placement in the lateral view (p = 0.123), and reduction quality (modified Baumgaertner’s method) (p = 0.575). In the multivariate analysis, CalTAD was the only significant measurement (p = 0.001). CalTAD had almost perfect inter-observer reliability (interclass correlation coefficient (ICC) 0.901).

Our data provide the first reported clinical evidence that CalTAD is a predictor of cut-out. The finding of CalTAD as the only significant parameter in the multivariate analysis, along with the univariate significance of Parker’s ratio index in the AP view, suggest that inferior placement of the lag screw is preferable to reduce the rate of cut-out.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:1029–34.

Aims. The impact of concomitant injuries in patients with proximal femoral fractures has rarely been studied. To date, the few studies published have been mostly single-centre research focusing on the influence of upper limb fractures. A retrospective cohort analysis was, therefore, conducted to identify the impact and distribution of concomitant injuries in patients with proximal femoral fractures. Methods. A retrospective, multicentre registry-based study was undertaken. Between 1 January 2016 and 31 December 2019, data for 24,919 patients from 100 hospitals were collected in the Registry for Geriatric Trauma. This information was queried and patient groups with and without concomitant injury were compared using linear and logistic regression models. In addition, we analyzed the influence of the different types of additional injuries. Results. A total of 22,602 patients met the inclusion criteria. The overall prevalence of a concomitant injury was 8.2% with a predominance of female patients (8.7% vs 6.9%; p < 0.001). Most common were fractures of the ipsilateral upper limb. Concomitant injuries resulted in prolonged time-to-surgery (by 3.4 hours (95 confidence interval (CI) 2.14 to 4.69)) and extended length of stay in hospital by 2.2 days (95% CI 1.74 to 2.61). Mortality during the admission was significantly higher in the concomitant injury group (7.4% vs 5.3%; p < 0.001). Additionally, walking ability and quality of life were reduced in these patients at discharge. More patients were discharged to a nursing home instead of their own home compared to patients without additional injuries (25.8% vs 30.3%; p < 0.001). Conclusion. With a prevalence of 8.2%, the appearance of a concomitant injury is common in elderly patients with hip fracture. These patients are at a greater risk for death during the admission, longer hospital stays, and delayed surgery. This knowledge is clinically important for all who are involved in the treatment of proximal femur fractures. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(9):1526–1533

Aims. The prevalence of ipsilateral total hip arthroplasty (THA) and total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is rising in concert with life expectancy, putting more patients at risk for interprosthetic femur fractures (IPFFs). Our study aimed to assess treatment methodologies, implant survivorship, and IPFF clinical outcomes. Methods. A total of 76 patients treated for an IPFF from February 1985 to April 2018 were reviewed. Prior to fracture, at the hip/knee sites respectively, 46 femora had primary/primary, 21 had revision/primary, three had primary/revision, and six had revision/revision components. Mean age and BMI were 74 years (33 to 99) and 30 kg/m. 2. (21 to 46), respectively. Mean follow-up after fracture treatment was seven years (2 to 24). Results. Overall, 59 fractures were classified as Vancouver C (Unified Classification System (UCS) D), 17 were Vancouver B (UCS B). In total, 57 patients (75%) were treated with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF); three developed nonunion, three developed periprosthetic joint infection, and two developed aseptic loosening. In all, 18 patients (24%) underwent revision arthroplasty including 13 revision THAs, four distal femoral arthroplasties (DFAs), and one revision TKA: of these, one patient developed aseptic loosening and two developed nonunion. Survivorship free from any reoperation was 82% (95% confidence interval (CI) 66.9% to 90.6%) and 77% (95% CI 49.4% to 90.7%) in the ORIF and revision groups at two years, respectively. ORIF patients who went on to union tended to have stemmed knee components and greater mean interprosthetic distance (IPD = 189 mm (SD 73.6) vs 163 mm (SD 36.7); p = 0.546) than nonunited fractures. Patients who went on to nonunion in the revision arthroplasty group had higher medullary diameter: cortical width ratio (2.5 (SD 1.7) vs 1.3 (SD 0.3); p = 0.008) and lower IPD (36 mm (SD 30.6) vs 214 mm (SD 32.1); p < 0.001). At latest follow-up, 95% of patients (n = 72) were ambulatory. Conclusion. Interprosthetic femur fractures are technically and biologically challenging cases. Individualized approaches to internal fixation versus revision arthroplasty led to an 81% (95% CI 68.3% to 88.6%) survivorship free from reoperation at two years with 95% of patients ambulatory. Continued improvements in management are warranted. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(7 Supple B):122–128

Aims. Current American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) guidelines for treating femoral fractures in children aged two to six years recommend early spica casting although some individuals have recommended intramedullary stabilization in this age group. The purpose of this study was to compare the treatment and family burden of care of spica casting and flexible intramedullary nailing in this age group. Methods. Patients aged two to six years old with acute, non-pathological femur fractures were prospectively enrolled at one of three tertiary children’s hospitals. Either early closed reduction with spica cast application or flexible intramedullary nailing was accomplished under general anaesthesia. The treatment method was selected after discussion of the options by the surgeon with the family. Data were prospectively collected on patient demographics, fracture characteristics, complications, pain medication, and union. The Impact on Family Scale was obtained at the six-week follow-up visit. In all, 75 patients were included in the study: 39 in the spica group and 36 in the nailing group. The mean age of the spica group was 2.71 (2.0 to 6.9) years and the mean age of the nailing group was 3.16 (2.0 to 6.9) years. Results. All fractures healed without evidence of malunion or more than 2.0 cm of shortening. The mean Impact on Family score was 70.2 for the spica group and 63.2 (55 to 99) for the nailing group, a statistically significant difference (p = 0.024) in a univariate analysis suggesting less impairment of the family in the intramedullary nailing group. There was no significant difference between pain medication requirements in the first 24 hours postoperatively. Two patients in the spica group and one patient in the intramedullary nailing group required additional treatment under anaesthesia. Conclusion. Both early spica casting and intramedullary nailing were effective methods for treating femoral fractures in children two to six years of age. Intramedullary stabilization provides an option in this age group that may be advantageous in some social situations that depend on the child’s mobility. Fracture treatment should be individualized based on factors that extend beyond anatomical and biological factors. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(8):1056–1061

Aims. Periprosthetic proximal femoral fractures (PFFs) are a major complication after total hip arthroplasty (THA). Health status after PFF is not specifically investigated. The aim of this study is to evaluate the health status pattern over two years after sustaining a PFF. Methods. A cohort of patients with PFF after THA was derived from the Brabant Injury Outcomes Surveillance (BIOS) study. The BIOS study, a prospective, observational, multicentre follow-up cohort study, was conducted to obtain data by questionnaires pre-injury and at one week, and one, three, six, 12, and 24 months after trauma. Primary outcome measures were the EuroQol five-dimension three-level questionnaire (EQ-5D-3L), the Health Utility Index 2 (HUI2), and the Health Utility Index 3 (HUI3). Secondary outcome measures were general measurements such as duration of hospital stay and mortality. Results. A total of 70 patients with a PFF were included. EQ-5D utility scores were significantly lower on all timepoints except at six months’ follow-up compared to pre-injury. EuroQol visual analogue scale (EQ-VAS) scores at one month's follow-up were significantly lower compared to pre-injury. The percentage of reported problems at two years was higher for all dimensions except anxiety/depression when compared to pre-injury. The mean EQ-5D utility score was 0.26 higher in males compared to females (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.01 to 0.42; p = 0.003). The mean EQ-VAS score for males was 8.9 points higher when compared to females over all timepoints (95% CI 1.2 to 16.7; p = 0.027). Mortality was 10% after two years’ follow-up. Conclusion. PFF patients are a frail population with substantial functional impairment at baseline. Post-injury, they have a significant and clinically relevant lower health status two years after trauma when compared to pre-injury. Health status improves the most between one and three months after injury. Two years after PFF, more patients experience problems in mobility, self-care, usual activities, and pain/discomfort than pre-injury. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(5):442–449

Aims. Treatment guidelines for atypical femoral fractures associated with bisphosphonates have not been established. We conducted a systematic review of the treatment of atypical femoral fractures first, to evaluate the outcomes of surgical fixation of complete atypical fractures and secondly, to assess whether prophylactic surgery is necessary for incomplete atypical fractures. Materials and Methods. Case reports and series were identified from the PubMed database and were included if they described the treatment of atypical femoral fractures. In total, 77 publications met our inclusion criteria and 733 patients with 834 atypical complete or incomplete femoral fractures were identified. Results. For complete fractures, internal fixation was predominantly achieved by intramedullary nailing. The mean time to healing post-operatively was 7.3 months (2 to 31). Revision surgery for nonunion or implant failure was needed in 77 fractures (12.6%). A greater percentage of fractures treated with plate fixation (31.3%) required revision surgery than those treated with intramedullary nailing (12.9%) (p < 0.01). Non-operative treatment of incomplete fractures failed and surgery was eventually needed in nearly half of the patients (47%), whereas prophylactic surgery was successful and achieved a 97% rate of healing. Conclusion. Intramedullary nailing is the first-line treatment for a complete fracture, although the risk of delayed healing and revision surgery seems to be higher than with a typical femoral fracture. Non-operative treatment does not appear to be a reliable way of treating an incomplete fracture: prophylactic intramedullary nailing should be considered if the patient is in intractable pain. Radiographs of the opposite side should be obtained routinely looking for an asymptomatic fracture. Bisphosphonates must be discontinued but ongoing metabolic management in the form of calcium and/or vitamin D supplements is advisable. Teriparatide therapy can be considered as an alternative treatment. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:295–302

Aims. The incidence of atypical femoral fractures (AFFs) continues to increase. However, there are currently few long-term studies on the complications of AFFs and factors affecting them. Therefore, we attempted to investigate the outcomes, complications, and risk factors for complication through mid-term follow-up of more than three years. Methods. From January 2003 to January 2016, 305 patients who underwent surgery for AFFs at six hospitals were enrolled. After exclusion, a total of 147 patients were included with a mean age of 71.6 years (48 to 89) and 146 of whom were female. We retrospectively evaluated medical records, and reviewed radiographs to investigate the fracture site, femur bowing angle, presence of delayed union or nonunion, contralateral AFFs, and peri-implant fracture. A statistical analysis was performed to identify the significance of associated factors. Results. The mean follow-up period was 70.2 months (36 to 191). There were 146 AFFs (99.3%) in female patients and the mean age was 71.6 years (48 to 89). The AFFs were located in the subtrochanter and shaft in 52 cases (35.4%) and 95 (64.6%), respectively. The preoperative mean anterior/lateral femoral bowing angles were 10.5° (SD 5.7°)/6.1° (SD 6.2°). The postoperative mean anterior/lateral bowing values were changed by 8.7° (SD 5.4°)/4.6° (SD 5.9°). Bisphosphonates had been used contemporarily in 115 AFFs (78.2%) for a mean of 52.4 months (1 to 204; SD 45.5) preoperatively. Nailing was performed in 133 AFFs (90.5%), and union was obtained at a mean of 23.6 weeks (7 to 85). Delayed union occurred in 41 (27.9%), and nonunion occurred in 13 (8.8%). Contralateral AFF occurred in 79 patients (53.7%), and the use of a bisphosphonate significantly influenced the occurrence of contralateral AFFs (p = 0.019). Peri-implant fractures occurred in a total of 13 patients (8.8%), and a significant increase was observed in cases with plating (p = 0.021) and high grade of postoperative anterolateral bowing (p = 0.044). Conclusion. The use of a bisphosphonate was found to be a risk factor for contralateral AFF, and high-grade postoperative anterolateral bowing and plate fixation significantly increased the occurrence of peri-implant fractures. Long-term follow-up studies on the bilaterality of AFFs and peri-implant fractures are warranted. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(11):1648–1655

Aims. Currently, periprosthetic fractures are excluded from the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR) definition of atypical femoral fracture (AFFs). This study aims to report on a series of periprosthetic femoral fractures (PFFs) that otherwise meet the criteria for AFFs. Secondary aims were to identify predictors of periprosthetic atypical femoral fractures (PAFFs) and quantify the complications of treatment. Patients and Methods. This was a retrospective case control study of consecutive patients with periprosthetic femoral fractures between 2007 and 2017. Two observers identified 16 PAFF cases (mean age 73.9 years (44 to 88), 14 female patients) and 17 typical periprosthetic fractures in patients on bisphosphonate therapy as controls (mean age 80.7 years (60 to 86, 13 female patients). Univariate and multivariate analysis was performed to identify predictors of PAFF. Management and complications were recorded. Results. Interobserver agreement for the PAFF classification was excellent (kappa = 0.944; p < 0.001). On univariate analysis compared with controls, patients with PAFFs had higher mean body mass indices (28.6 kg/m. 2. (. sd. 8.9) vs 21.5 kg/m. 2. (. sd. 3.3); p = 0.009), longer durations of bisphosphonate therapy (median 5.5 years (IQR 3.2 to 10.6) vs 2.4 years (IQR 1.0 to 6.4); p = 0.04), and were less likely to be on alendronate (50% vs 94%; p = 0.02) with an indication of secondary osteoporosis (19% vs 0%; p = 0.049). Duration of bisphosphonate therapy was an independent predictor of PAFF on multivariate analysis (R. 2. = 0.733; p = 0.05). Following primary fracture management, complication rates were higher in PAFFs (9/16, 56%) than controls (5/17, 29%; p = 0.178) with a relative risk of any complication following PAFF of 1.71 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.77 to 3.8) and of reoperation 2.56 (95% CI 1.3 to 5.2). Conclusion. AFFs do occur in association with prostheses. Longer duration of bisphosphonate therapy is an independent predictor of PAFF. Complication rates are higher following PAFFs compared with typical PFFs, particularly of reoperation and infection. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:1285–1291

An atypical femoral fracture (AFF), with a transverse fracture radiologically through the lateral cortex is a rare but serious condition. In order to improve our ability to identify patients with this condition, we retrospectively surveyed all subtrochanteric, peri-implant and diaphyseal femoral fractures in patients aged ≥ 65 years who underwent surgical treatment at our hospital between 2004 and 2011. We describe the incidence of atypical fractures and their characteristics, with observational data including a review of the hospital and general practitioner records. Clinical outcomes were evaluated using the Harris hip score (HHS) and the timed up-and-go (TUG) test. Atypical fractures only occurred in women with an incidence of 9.8 per 100 000 person-years. The incidence in those who were treated with bisphosphonates was 79.0 per 100 000 person-years; eight of 17 fractures occurred around metal implants. There was a high incidence of delayed union and revision surgery. A total of nine patients (ten AFFs) were available for review at a mean follow-up of 36.5 months (10 to 104). The clinical outcome was poor with a mean HHS of 58.9 (95% CI 47.4 to 70.4) and a mean TUG test of 25.7 s (95% CI 12.7 to 38.8). The delay in diagnosis and treatment of AFF may result from a lack of knowledge of this condition. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:1035–40

Peri-prosthetic femoral fracture after total hip replacement (THR) is associated with a poor outcome and high mortality. However, little is known about its long-term incidence after uncemented THR. We retrospectively reviewed a consecutive series of 326 patients (354 hips) who had received a CLS Spotorno replacement with an uncemented, straight, collarless tapered titanium stem between January 1985 and December 1989. The mean follow-up was 17 years (15 to 20). The occurrence of peri-prosthetic femoral fracture during follow-up was noted. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was used to estimate the cumulative incidence of fracture. At the last follow-up, 86 patients (89 hips) had died and eight patients (eight hips) had been lost to follow-up. A total of 14 fractures in 14 patients had occurred. In ten hips, the femoral component had to be revised and in four the fracture was treated by open reduction and internal fixation. The cumulative incidence of peri-prosthetic femoral fracture was 1.6% (95% confidence interval 0.7 to 3.8) at ten years and 4.5% (95% confidence interval 2.6 to 8.0) at 17 years after the primary THR. There was no association between the occurrence of fracture and gender or age at the time of the primary replacement. Our findings indicate that peri-prosthetic femoral fracture is a significant mode of failure in the long term after the insertion of an uncemented CLS Spotorno stem. Revision rates for this fracture rise in the second decade. Further research is required to investigate the risk factors involved in the occurrence of late peri-prosthetic femoral fracture after the implantation of any uncemented stem, and to assess possible methods of prevention

The results of the treatment of 31 open femoral fractures (29 patients) with significant bone loss in a single trauma unit were reviewed. A protocol of early soft-tissue and bony debridement was followed by skeletal stabilisation using a locked intramedullary nail or a dynamic condylar plate for diaphyseal and metaphyseal fractures respectively. Soft-tissue closure was obtained within 48 hours then followed, if required, by elective bone grafting with or without exchange nailing. The mean time to union was 51 weeks (20 to 156). The time to union and functional outcome were largely dependent upon the location and extent of the bone loss. It was achieved more rapidly in fractures with wedge defects than in those with segmental bone loss. Fractures with metaphyseal defects healed more rapidly than those of comparable size in the diaphysis. Complications were more common in fractures with greater bone loss, and included stiffness of the knee, malunion and limb-length discrepancy. Based on our findings, we have produced an algorithm for the treatment of these injuries. We conclude that satisfactory results can be achieved in most femoral fractures with bone loss using initial debridement and skeletal stabilisation to maintain length, with further procedures as required

We evaluated the cost and consequences of proximal femoral fractures requiring further surgery because of complications. The data were collected prospectively in a standard manner from all patients with a proximal femoral fracture presenting to the trauma unit at the John Radcliffe Hospital over a five-year period. The total cost of treatment for each patient was calculated by separating it into its various components. The risk factors for the complications that arose, the location of their discharge and the mortality rates for these patients were compared to those of a matched control group. There were 2360 proximal femoral fractures in 2257 patients, of which 144 (6.1%) required further surgery. The mean cost of treatment in patients with complications was £18 709 (£2606.30 to £60.827.10), compared with £8610 (£918.54 to £45 601.30) for uncomplicated cases (p < 0.01), with a mean length of stay of 62.8 (44.5 to 79.3) and 32.7 (23.8 to 35.0) days, respectively. The probability of mortality after one month in these cases was significantly higher than in the control group, with a mean survival of 209 days, compared with 496 days for the controls. Patients with complications were statistically less likely to return to their own home (p < 0.01). Greater awareness and understanding are required to minimise the complications of proximal femoral fractures and consequently their cost

Aims. The aim of this study was to evaluate the outcomes of a salvage procedure using a 95° angled blade plate for failed osteosynthesis of atypical subtrochanteric femoral fractures associated with the long-term use of bisphosphonates. These were compared with those for failed osteosynthesis of subtrochanteric fractures not associated with bisphosphonate treatment. Patients and Methods. Between October 2008 and July 2016, 14 patients with failed osteosynthesis of an atypical subtrochanteric femoral fracture were treated with a blade plate (atypical group). Their mean age was 67.8 years (60 to 74); all were female. During the same period, 21 patients with failed osteosynthesis of a typical subtrochanteric fracture underwent restabilization using a blade plate (typical group). Outcome variables included the time of union, postoperative complications, Harris Hip Score, and Sanders functional rating scale. Results. In the atypical group, union was achieved in 12 patients (85.7%) at a mean of 8.4 months (4 to 12). The mean follow-up was 31.2 months (12 to 92) The plate broke in one patient requiring further stabilization with a longer plate and strut-allograft. Another patient with failure of fixation and varus angulation at the fracture site declined further surgery. In the typical group, union was achieved in 18 patients (85.7%) at a mean of 7.9 months (4 to 12). There was no difference in the mean Harris Hip Score between the two groups (83.1 points vs 86.8 points; p = 0.522) at the time of final follow-up. Sanders functional rating scores were good or excellent in 78.6% of the atypical group and in 81.0% of the typical group. Conclusion. The 95° angled blade plate was shown to be an effective fixation modality for nonunion of atypical subtrochanteric fractures with a high rate of union and functional improvement, comparable to those after fractures not associated with bisphosphonate treatment. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:1511–17

A medical and engineering study was made of 1074 car accidents involving 2520 vehicle occupants. The injuries they sustained were correlated with details of the crash and with contact points inside the cars. Where possible the forces which were generated in the crash were estimated and related to the injuries. In all, 39 car occupants suffered femoral shaft fracture, with an incidence of 1.7% and 0.8% for front and rear seat occupants respectively. Of these, 31 had associated injuries to other regions of the body; these were the cause of 13 of the 14 deaths in this group. Associated injuries were more severe in car occupants who were not wearing seat belts but the incidence of femoral fracture was not significantly different. The mean velocity change (delta-V) causing femoral fracture was 26 mph (42 km/h) and there was a higher incidence of femoral shaft fracture when delta-V was over 30 mph. Estimates of forces needed to cause fracture were higher than those found in cadaver studies. The time to union of femoral fractures did not correlate with the severity of the crash but was longer (mean 19 weeks) than the average for other femoral fractures

Benefits of early stabilization of femoral shaft fractures, in mitigation of pulmonary and other complications, have been recognized over the past decades. Investigation into the appropriate level of resuscitation, and other measures of readiness for definitive fixation, versus a damage control strategy have been ongoing. These principles are now being applied to fractures of the thoracolumbar spine, pelvis, and acetabulum. Systems of trauma care are evolving to encompass attention to expeditious and safe management of not only multiply injured patients with these major fractures, but also definitive care for hip and periprosthetic fractures, which pose a similar burden of patient recumbency until stabilized. Future directions regarding refinement of patient resuscitation, assessment, and treatment are anticipated, as is the potential for data sharing and registries in enhancing trauma system functionality.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):361–364.

An 81-year-old woman presented with a fracture in the left femur. She had well-fixed bilateral hip replacements and had received long-term bisphosphonate treatment. Prolonged bisphosphonate use has been recently linked with atypical subtrochanteric and diaphyseal femoral fractures. While the current definition of an atypical fracture of the femur excludes peri-prosthetic fractures, this case suggests that they do occur and should be considered in patients with severe osteopenia. Union of the fracture followed cessation of bisphosphonates and treatment with teriparatide. Thus, this case calls into question whether prophylactic intramedullary nailing is sufficient alone to treat early or completed atypical femoral fractures

The outcome of various types of treatment for femoral fracture in children with head injury was studied retrospectively in 51 patients with 56 fractures. Of these, 36 patients (71 per cent) were in deep coma and scored 5 to 7 on the Glasgow scale. Forty-three children (84 per cent) were eventually able to walk freely. Open reduction and internal fixation proved an attractive solution for femoral fractures in children with head injury who could tolerate general anaesthesia: intramedullary nailing was safe and gave satisfactory results in 16 fractures but infection complicated three of the five fractures which were plated

We have attempted to describe the epidemiology of femoral fractures in children in the West Midlands region of the National Health Service in England. Our source of data was the Regional Hospital Episode Statistics database for the years 1991-2 to 2001-2. Cases were defined as emergency hospital admissions in patients aged under 16 years, with a diagnostic code of femoral fractures in any field, and resident in the West Midlands. Between 1991-2 and 2001-2, 3272 children aged under 16 years with femoral fractures were admitted to hospital. The crude incidence during this period decreased from 0.33 to 0.22 femoral fractures/1000/year. Those caused by traffic accidents decreased by 43%, and by falls by 29%. The peak age-gender-specific incidence (0.91/1000/year) was in two-year-old boys, and this was 50% higher than in the next highest age-gender group. In the first year of life, the incidence in boys and girls was the same. Thereafter the rate in boys exceeded that in girls, varying from 1.6 times at 11 years to 4.7 times at 14 years. Falls accounted for 49% of the fractures, varying from 77% in one-year-olds to 26% in eight-year-old children. Traffic accidents were responsible for 26% of fractures varying from 55% in ten-year-old to 2% in one-year-old children. Maltreatment was recorded in 1.3% of all cases, and in 8.5% of children under one year. Twice as many fractures were seen in May to August than in January (winter). The rates of fractures were associated with deprivation for all age-gender groups. Fractures of the shaft accounted for 58% of all fractures, varying from 70% in three-year-old to 34% in 13-year-old children. Our findings show that there has been a decrease in the incidence of femoral fractures during the 1990s and early 2000s. Two-year-old boys had twice the rate than any other single-year age-gender group. More deprived areas had much higher rates which suggests the potential for greater prevention. A relatively low rate of maltreatment was recorded compared with that in some other studies

We performed a retrospective review of all patients admitted to two large University Hospitals in the United Kingdom over a 24-month period from January 2008 to January 2010 to identify the incidence of atypical subtrochanteric and femoral shaft fractures and their relationship to bisphosphonate treatment. Of the 3515 patients with a fracture of the proximal femur, 156 fractures were in the subtrochanteric region. There were 251 femoral shaft fractures. The atypical fracture pattern was seen in 27 patients (7%) with 29 femoral shaft or subtrochanteric fractures. A total of 22 patients with 24 atypical fractures were receiving bisphosphonate treatment at the time of fracture. Prodromal pain was present in nine patients (11 fractures); 11 (50%) of the patients on bisphosphonates suffered 12 spontaneous fractures, and healing of these fractures was delayed in a number of patients. This large dual-centre review has established the incidence of atypical femoral fractures at 7% of the study population, 81% of whom had been on bisphosphonate treatment for a mean of 4.6 years (0.04 to 12.1). This study does not advocate any change in the use of bisphosphonates to prevent fragility fractures but attempts to raise awareness of this possible problem so symptomatic patients will be appropriately investigated. However, more work is required to identify the true extent of this new and possibly increasing problem

A consecutive series is reported of 17 patients who underwent early surgical treatment for acetabular or unstable pelvic fractures associated with ipsilateral fractures of the femur. Treatment included external and internal fixation, and required careful consideration of the surgical approach and the positioning of the patient. The multiple injuries sustained by these patients required simultaneous procedures by several surgical teams. All the femoral fractures were internally fixed at the initial operation and eight patients had primary definitive treatment of all their other fractures as well. In nine patients the definitive treatment of their other fractures was delayed for an average of 11 days. There were no deaths, and no serious infections. The long-term morbidity resulted from the associated injuries and not from the pelvic or femoral fractures

This retrospective cohort study was conducted to investigate whether operative treatment of patients with a pertrochanteric femoral fracture outside working hours is associated with an increased risk of complications and higher mortality. During the study period 165 patients were operated on outside working hours and 123 were operated on during working hours (08.00 to 17.00). There was no difference in the rate of early complications (outside working hours 33% versus working hours 33%, p = 0.91) or total complications during follow-up (outside working hours 40% versus working hours 41%, p = 0.91). Both in-hospital mortality (outside working hours 12% versus working hours 11%, p = 0.97) and mortality after one year (outside working hours 29% versus working hours 27%, p = 0.67) were comparable. Adjustment for possible confounders by multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed no increased risk of complications when patients were operated on outside working hours. On the basis of these data, there is no medical reason to postpone operative reduction and fixation in patients with a proximal femoral fracture until working hours

We have compared the sonographic findings of six femoral fractures with soft-tissue interposition which required open reduction with those of a control group of 40 other femoral fractures. Ultrasound assessment before operation showed that the fractured end of the proximal fragment had penetrated the quadriceps muscle anteriorly while the distal fragment lay beneath it. Transverse scans showed less soft-tissue thickness over the end of the proximal fragment in the problem cases. Radiographic image intensification did not provide any additional information. Ultrasound is of value in demonstrating soft-tissue interposition at the fracture site before femoral nailing

We treated 108 patients with a pertrochanteric femoral fracture using either the dynamic hip screw or the proximal femoral nail in this prospective, randomised series. We compared walking ability before fracture, intra-operative variables and return to their residence. Patients treated with the proximal femoral nail (n = 42) had regained their pre-operative walking ability significantly (p = 0.04) more often by the four-month review than those treated with the dynamic hip screw (n = 41). Peri-operative or immediate post-operative measures of outcome did not differ between the groups, with the exception of operation time. The dynamic hip screw allowed a significantly greater compression of the fracture during the four-month follow-up, but consolidation of the fracture was comparable between the two groups. Two major losses of reduction were observed in each group, resulting in a total of four revision operations. Our results suggest that the use of the proximal femoral nail may allow a faster postoperative restoration of walking ability, when compared with the dynamic hip screw

Intra-articular resection of bone with soft-tissue balancing and total knee replacement (TKR) has been described for the treatment of patients with severe osteoarthritis of the knee associated with an ipsilateral malunited femoral fracture. However, the extent to which deformity in the sagittal plane can be corrected has not been addressed. We treated 12 patients with severe arthritis of the knee and an extra-articular malunion of the femur by TKR with intra-articular resection of bone and soft-tissue balancing. The femora had a mean varus deformity of 16° (8° to 23°) in the coronal plane. There were seven recurvatum deformities with a mean angulation of 11° (6° to 15°) and five antecurvatum deformities with a mean angulation of 12° (6° to 15°). The mean follow-up was 93 months (30 to 155). The median Knee Society knee and function scores improved from 18.7 (0 to 49) and 24.5 (10 to 50) points pre-operatively to 93 (83 to 100) and 90 (70 to 100) points at the time of the last follow-up, respectively. The mean mechanical axis of the knee improved from 22.6° of varus (15° to 27° pre-operatively to 1.5° of varus (3° of varus to 2° of valgus) at the last follow-up. The recurvatum deformities improved from a mean of 11° (6° to 15°) pre-operatively to 3° (0° to 6°) at the last follow-up. The antecurvatum deformities in the sagittal plane improved from a mean of 12° (6° to 16°) pre-operatively to 4.4° (0° to 8°) at the last follow-up. Apart from varus deformities, TKR with intra-articular bone resection effectively corrected the extra-articular deformity of the femur in the presence of antecurvatum of up to 16° and recurvatum of up to 15°

We studied the morphology of the contralateral femur in 10 patients with subcapital fractures, 10 with trochanteric fractures and 10 with unilateral osteoarthritis. We found that the patients with trochanteric fractures had a significantly shorter femoral neck (4.5 +/- 0.5 cm) than patients with subcapital fractures or osteoarthritis (5.4 +/- 0.4 cm). It may be that this difference in femoral neck length is related to the site at which a proximal femoral fracture occurs

We studied prospectively a consecutive series of 765 patients with proximal femoral fractures to determine if the time interval between injury and surgery influenced the outcome. Patients in whom surgery had been delayed for medical reasons were excluded. We divided the patients into four groups depending on the delay to surgery. Analysis of pre- and postoperative characteristics showed the groups to be similar. Mortality in the four groups was not significantly different but morbidity was increased by delay, particularly with regard to the incidence of pressure sores

We reviewed the clinical details and radiographs of 52 patients with ballistic fractures of the femur admitted to the International Committee of the Red Cross Hospital in Kenya (Lopiding), who had sustained injuries in neighbouring Sudan. In all cases there had been a significant delay in the initial surgery (> 24 hours), and all patients were managed without stabilisation of the fracture by internal or external fixation. Of the 52 patients, three required an amputation for persisting infection of the fracture site despite multiple debridements. A further patient was treated by an excision arthroplasty of the hip, but this was carried out at the initial operation as a part of the required debridement. All of the remaining 48 fractures healed. Four patients needed permanent shoe adaptation because of limb shortening of functional significance. Although we do not advocate delaying treatment or using traction instead of internal or external fixation, we have demonstrated that open femoral fractures can heal despite limited resources

The Vancouver classification has been shown by its developers to be a valid and reliable method for categorising the configuration of periprosthetic proximal femoral fractures and for planning their management. We have re-validated this classification system independently using the radiographs of 30 patients with periprosthetic fractures. These were reviewed by six experienced consultant orthopaedic surgeons, six trainee surgeons and six medical students in order to assess intra- and interobserver reliability and reproducibility. Each observer read the radiographs on two separate occasions. The results were subjected to weighted kappa statistical analysis. The respective kappa values for interobserver agreement were 0.72 and 0.74 for consultants, 0.68 and 0.70 for trainees on the first and second readings of the radiographs and 0.61 for medical students. The intra-observer agreement for the consultants was 0.64 and 0.67, for the trainees 0.61 and 0.64, and for the medical students 0.59 and 0.60 for the first and second readings, respectively. The validity of the classification was studied by comparing the pre-operative radiological findings within B subgroups with the operative findings. This revealed agreement for 77% of these type-B fractures, with a kappa value of 0.67. Our data confirm the reliability and reproducibility of this classification system in a European setting and for inexperienced staff. This is a reliable system which can be used by non-experts, between centres and across continents

In a prospective study we assessed the causes of mechanical failure in a series of 230 intertrochanteric femoral fractures which had been internally fixed with either a sliding hip screw or a Kuntscher Y-nail. The overall rate of mechanical failure was 16.5%; cutting-out of the implant from the femoral head was the cause in three-quarters of the instances. Implants placed posteriorly in the femoral head cut out more often (27%) than those placed centrally (7%). The cut-out rate was also determined by the quality of the fracture reduction, but age, walking ability and bone density (assessed by the Singh grade and metacarpal indices) had no significant influence. We conclude that these fractures should be reduced as accurately as possible and it is imperative that the implant is placed centrally within the femoral head

It has been suggested that reamed intramedullary nailing of the femur should be avoided in some patients with multiple injuries. We have studied prospectively the effect of femoral reaming on the inflammatory process as implicated in the pathogenesis of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiple-organ failure (MOF). We studied changes in the levels of serum interleukin-6 (IL-6) (proinflammatory cytokine), neutrophil CD11b (C3) receptor expression (activated neutrophil adhesion molecule), serum soluble intracellular adhesion molecule (s-ICAM-1), serum soluble E-selectin (the soluble products of endothelial adhesion molecules) and plasma elastase (neutrophil protease) in a series of patients with femoral fractures treated by nailing. We have also compared reamed nailing with unreamed nailing. We found that the levels of serum IL-6 and elastase rose significantly during the nailing procedure indicating a measurable ‘second hit’. There was no clear response in leukocyte activation and no difference in the release of endothelial adhesion molecule markers. There was no significant difference between groups treated by reamed and unreamed nailing. Although clinically unremarkable, the one patient who died from ARDS was shown to be hyperstimulated after injury and again after nailing, suggesting the importance of an excessive inflammatory reaction in the pathogenesis of these serious problems. Our findings have shown that there is a second hit associated with femoral nailing and suggest that the degree of the inflammatory reaction may be important in the pathogenesis of ARDS and MOF

Most hip fractures treated with modern internal fixation techniques will heal. However, failures occasionally occur and require revision procedures. Salvage strategies employed during revision are based on whether the fixation failure occurs in the femoral neck, or in the intertrochanteric region. Patient age and remaining bone stock also influence decision making. For fractures in young patients, efforts are generally focused on preserving the native femoral head via osteotomies and repeat internal fixation. For failures in older patients, some kind of hip replacement is usually selected. Disuse osteopenia, deformity, bone loss, and stress-risers from previous internal fixation devices all pose technical challenges to successful reconstruction. Attention to detail is important in order to minimise complications. In the majority of cases, good outcomes have been reported for the various salvage strategies.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B, Supple A:7–10.

1. A review of 195 patients with displaced intracapsular fractures of the femoral neck treated by a sliding nail-plate appliance has been presented.

2. The highest failure rate was evident in fractures in women over seventy-five with Grade 4 displacement.

3. The effect of various concomitant factors has been analysed in relation to the end results.

4. Observations have been made on avascular necrosis, its incidence amongst the failures and its association with late segmental collapse after fracture union.

Intertrochanteric fractures of the femur are usually classified into stable and unstable groups, partly to predict the likelihood of displacement with early weight-bearing after internal fixation. Of 82 internally fixed intertrochanteric fractures which would normally be classified as stable, 25 subsequently underwent impaction along the axis of the nail or screw; varus displacement occurred in another six. Of these 31 fractures, 10 were two-part fractures which had been anatomically reduced, and 12 were originally undisplaced. It did not seem possible to predict the subsequent instability from the pre-operative radiographs. Of the 82 fractures, 47 had been treated with a Jewett nail-plate and 35 by a Richards compression screw-plate. Two groups of stable fractures were recognised: Group 1 was undisplaced and Group 2 displaced. Axial impaction occurred in a quarter of all Group 1 fractures however treated. In Group 2 fractures it occurred in a quarter of those treated with a nail-plate, and in over a third of those treated with a sliding screw-plate. The six fractures that underwent varus displacement had all been treated with Jewett nail-plates. Penetration into the joint occurred in 10 patients, all of them in the group treated with Jewett nail-plates; four required re-operation.

We have studied the incidence of fractures of the proximal femur in one English county from 1968 to 1991. Numbers have increased steadily, but the age-specific incidence has remained relatively unchanged since 1981. The increase is due to the rise in the population most at risk; this is likely to continue causing a 20% increase in demand for treatment by the year 2000. Suitable allocation of resources must be planned.

Fifty consecutive comminuted fractures of the femoral shaft were treated by closed unlocked intramedullary nailing. Twelve unstable fractures also had cast-bracing. There were no cases of infection or non-union, and satisfactory results were achieved in 38 fractures (76%). More severe comminution led to a higher incidence of unsatisfactory results, but malrotation deformity was seen more often in less comminuted fractures and appeared to be due to poor operative reduction. Shortening in severe comminution was the main complication and was not controlled by supplementary cast-bracing. Closed unlocked intramedullary nailing is effective for lesser grades of comminution, but fractures with no cortical continuity at reduction should be treated with a locking nail.

The intensity of scattered radiation in both a forward and a backward direction from a portable fluoroscope during pinning of the neck of the femur was measured by experiments on a cadaver. The intensity decreased rapidly with increasing distance from the flare of the greater trochanter. Hazard to the surgeon's hands from scattered radiation can be greatly reduced by positioning the C-arm of the fluoroscope so that the x-ray beam is directed laterally.

In a frail elderly patient a pathological fracture of the femur at the lower end of a loose femoral stem was treated by the retrograde insertion of an intramedullary nail over the tip of the prosthesis.

We investigated the spines of 15 patients who had significant leg-length inequality as a result of femoral shaft fractures sustained after skeletal maturity but below the age of 21 years. The patients were examined at least 10 years after fracture. The spines were studied clinically and radiographically before and after correction of leg-length inequality with a shoe-raise. Lateral spinal flexion was measured from radiographs. The lumbar scoliosis associated with the leg-length inequality was compensatory: after equalisation of leg-length the overall curve and the axial rotation were corrected completely. There was also an equal range of lateral flexion to either side after correction. Minor malalignments of the whole spine remained despite correction of the compensatory scoliosis, and within the lumbar spine correction of the scoliosis had not occurred equally at all levels. No patients complained of significant discomfort and neither structural abnormalities nor degenerative changes were seen on the radiographs.

Osteomalacia may be a contributory factor in some patients in the development of fractures of the femoral neck and complicate the subsequent management. The level of serum alkaline phosphatase is often valuable in the diagnosis of metabolic bone disease but rises after any uncomplicated fracture, and since such a rise may limit the diagnostic usefulness of this measurement in detecting osteomalacia its extent was assessed in 106 patients. In the majority serum levels were normal on admission, rising after seven to nine days to reach a maximum within a month after fracture. Elevated levels on admission were found in patients with osteomalacia, liver damage or where there had been a delay of several weeks between injury and admission. In a small number of patients normal levels on admission subsequently reached very high values, usually in association with comminution or instability of the fracture. Elevated levels persisted for six to twelve weeks after fracture, the major influence upon the level at this time being the maximum value achieved rather than the presence of osteomalacia. If patients are to be screened for osteomalacia, the alkaline phosphatase must be measured within the first week after a fracture to avoid the distorting influences of the fracture itself.

Callus formation and the rate of union of nailed fractures of the femur has been determined in 22 patients with associated head injuries and compared with that in a group of patients with similarly treated fractures but without head injuries. The comparison confirms the widely held view that, in patients with head injuries, fractures frequently heal with excessive callus and at a faster rate than normal.

We compared the mortality and outcome of 182 patients with proximal fractures of the femur after immediate and delayed surgical treatment. Seventy-nine patients were operated upon within six hours of the fracture (group 1) and 103 patients were operated upon after this period of time (group 2).

At six months follow-up, group 1 had a significantly lower mortality rate. There was a good outcome in both groups with no differences in the outcome. Neither surgical nor anaesthetic factors appeared to have influenced mortality. The subdivision of groups revealed that patients operated on within 24 hours had a better outcome than those whose surgery was delayed.

Although there may have been a bias, as patients were not randomly assigned to immediate or delayed surgical treatment, the data suggest that early stabilisation may be associated with a lower mortality rate. Even with pre-clinical delays of more than six hours early treatment should still be attempted, as better results seem to be achieved after 24 hours compared to a later time in our patients.

Seventy-nine cases of fracture of the femoral shaft treated by cast-brace and early walking have been reviewed. Discrepancy in femoral length was assessed by scanogram. The cases were analysed to relate the incidence of shortening greater than 2 centimetres to the type and site of the fracture, and the time which elapsed from injury until the cast-brace was applied. Such shortening was encountered most frequently when the cast-brace was applied within the first two weeks from injury or after six weeks and in those patients with comminuted fractures of the middle third of the femoral shaft.