Rotator cuff pathology is the main cause of shoulder pain and dysfunction in older adults. When a rotator cuff tear involves the subscapularis tendon, the symptoms are usually more severe and the prognosis after surgery must be guarded. Isolated subscapularis tears represent 18% of all rotator cuff tears and arthroscopic repair is a good alternative primary treatment. However, when the tendon is deemed irreparable, tendon transfers are the only option for younger or high-functioning patients. The aim of this review is to describe the indications, biomechanical principles, and outcomes which have been reported for tendon transfers, which are available for the treatment of irreparable subscapularis tears. The best tendon to be transferred remains controversial. Pectoralis major transfer was described more than 30 years ago to treat patients with failed surgery for instability of the shoulder. It has subsequently been used extensively to manage irreparable subscapularis tendon tears in many clinical settings. Although pectoralis major reproduces the position and orientation of the subscapularis in the coronal plane, its position in the axial plane – anterior to the rib cage – is clearly different and does not allow it to function as an ideal transfer. Consistent relief of pain and moderate recovery of strength and function have been reported following the use of this transfer. In an attempt to improve on these results, latissimus dorsi tendon transfer was proposed as an alternative and the technique has evolved from an open to an arthroscopic procedure. Satisfactory relief of pain and improvements in functional shoulder scores have recently been reported following its use. Both pectoralis minor and upper trapezius transfers have also been used in these patients, but the outcomes that have been reported do not support their widespread use. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(9):970–977

Aims

Favourable short-term outcomes have been reported following latissimus dorsi tendon transfer for patients with an irreparable subscapularis (SSC) tendon tear. The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term outcomes of this transfer in these patients.

This study evaluates the position of the long head of biceps tendon using ultrasound following simple tenotomy, in patients with arthroscopically repaired rotator cuff tears. In total, 52 patients with a mean age of 60.7 years (45 to 75) underwent arthroscopic repair of the rotator cuff and simple tenotomy of the long head of biceps tendon. At two years post-operatively, ultrasound revealed that the tendon was inside the bicipital groove in 43 patients (82.7%) and outside in nine (17.3%); in six of these it was lying just outside the groove and in the remaining three (5.8%) it was in a remote position with a positive Popeye Sign. A dynamic ultrasound scan revealed that the tenotomised tendons had adhered to the surrounding tissues (autotenodesis).The initial condition of the tendon influenced its final position (p < 0.0005). The presence of a Popeye sign was statistically influenced by the pre-operative co-existence of supraspinatus and subscapularis tears (p < 0.0001). It appears that the natural history of the tenotomised long head of biceps tendon is to tenodese itself inside or just outside the bicipital groove, while its pre-operative condition and coexistent subscapularis tears play a significant role in the occurrence of a Popeye sign

Aims

The outcomes following nonoperative management of minimally displaced greater tuberosity (GT) fractures, and the factors which influence patient experience, remain poorly defined. We assessed the early patient-derived outcomes following these injuries and examined the effect of a range of demographic- and injury-related variables on these outcomes.

Aims

The purpose of this study was to identify the changes in untreated long head of the biceps brachii tendon (LHBT) after a rotator cuff tear and to evaluate the factors related to the changes.

Aims

The aim of this study was to compare the characteristics and outcomes of L-shaped and reverse L-shaped rotator cuff tears.

Aims

In patients with a rotator cuff tear, tear pattern and tendon involvement are known risk factors for the development of pseudoparalysis of the shoulder. It remains unclear, however, why similar tears often have very different functional consequences. The present study hypothesizes that individual shoulder anatomy, specifically the moment arms (MAs) of the rotator cuff (RC) and the deltoid muscle, as well as their relative recruitment during shoulder abduction, plays a central role in pseudoparalysis.

Aims

The aim of this study was to assess hypertrophy of the extra-articular tendon of the long head of biceps (LHB) in patients with a rotator cuff tear.

Transfer of pectoralis major has evolved as the most favoured option for the management of the difficult problem of irreparable tears of subscapularis. We describe our experience with this technique in 30 patients divided into three groups. Group I comprised 11 patients with a failed procedure for instability of the shoulder, group II included eight with a failed shoulder replacement and group III, 11 with a massive tear of the rotator cuff. All underwent transfer of the sternal head of pectoralis major to restore the function of subscapularis. At the latest follow-up pain had improved in seven of the 11 patients in groups I and III, but in only one of eight in group II. The subjective shoulder score improved in seven patients in group I, in one in group II and in six in group III. The mean Constant score improved from 40.9 points (28 to 50) in group I, 32.9 (17 to 47) in group II and 28.7 (20 to 42) in group III pre-operatively to 60.8 (28 to 89), 41.9 (24 to 73) and 52.3 (24 to 78), respectively. Failure of the tendon transfer was highest in group II and was associated with pre-operative anterior subluxation of the humeral head. We conclude that in patients with irreparable rupture of subscapularis after shoulder replacement there is a high risk of failure of transfer of p?ctoralis major, particularly if there is pre-operative anterior subluxation of the humeral head

We treated surgically 16 shoulders with an isolated traumatic rupture of the subscapularis tendon over a six-year period. Nine patients had a total and seven a partial tear of the subscapularis tendon. Repair was undertaken through a small deltopectoral groove approach. The mean Constant score improved in total tears from 38.7 to 89.3 points (p = 0.003) and in partial tears from 50.7 to 87.9 points (p = 0.008). The total tears were significantly more improved by surgery than the partial tears (p = 0.001). The delay between trauma and surgery was inversely proportional to the improvement in the Constant score suggesting that early diagnosis and surgical repair improves outcome.

Surgical repair of posterosuperior rotator cuff tears has a poorer outcome and a higher rate of failure compared with repairs of supraspinatus tears. In this prospective cohort study 28 consecutive patients with an irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tear after failed conservative or surgical treatment underwent teres major tendon transfer. Their mean age was 60 years (48 to 71) and the mean follow-up was 25 months (12 to 80). The mean active abduction improved from 79° (0° to 150°) pre-operatively to 105° (20° to 180°) post-operatively (p = 0.011). The mean active external rotation in 90° abduction improved from 25° (0° to 70°) pre-operatively to 55° (0° to 90°) post-operatively (p < 0.001). The mean Constant score improved from 43 (18 to 78) pre-operatively to 65 (30 to 86) post-operatively (p < 0.001). The median post-operative VAS (0 to 100) for pain decreased from 63 (0 to 96) pre-operatively to 5 (0 to 56) post-operatively (p < 0.001).

In conclusion, teres major transfer effectively restores function and relieves pain in patients with irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears and leads to an overall clinical improvement in a relatively young and active patient group with limited treatment options.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:523–9.

While frequently discussed as a standard treatment for the management of an infected shoulder replacement, there is little information on the outcome of two-stage re-implantation.

We examined the outcome of 17 consecutive patients (19 shoulders) who were treated between 1995 and 2004 with a two-stage re-implantation for the treatment of a deep-infection after shoulder replacement. All 19 shoulders were followed for a minimum of two years or until the time of further revision surgery. The mean clinical follow-up was for 35 months (24 to 80). The mean radiological follow-up was 27 months (7 to 80). There were two excellent results, four satisfactory and 13 unsatisfactory. In 12 of the 19 shoulders (63%) infection was considered to be eradicated. The mean pain score improved from 4.2 (3 to 5 (out of 5)) to 1.8 (1 to 4). The mean elevation improved from 42° (0° to 140°) to 89° (0° to 165°), mean external rotation from 30° (0° to 90°) to 43° (0° to 90°), and mean internal rotation from the sacrum to L5. There were 14 complications.

Our study suggests that two-stage re-implantation for an infected shoulder replacement is associated with a high rate of unsatisfactory results, marginal success at eradicating infection and a high complication rate.

CT arthrography and arthroscopy were used to assess tears of the rotator cuff in 259 shoulders. Tear size was determined in the frontal and sagittal planes according to the classification of the French Arthroscopy Society.

CT arthrography had a sensitivity of 99% and a specificity of 100% for the diagnosis of tears of supraspinatus. For infraspinatus these figures were 97.44% and 99.52%, respectively and, for subscapularis, 64.71% and 98.17%. For lesions of the long head of the biceps, the sensitivity was 45.76% and the specificity was 99.57%.

Our study showed an excellent correlation between CT arthrography and arthroscopy when assessing the extent of a rotator cuff tear. CT arthrography should, therefore, be an indispensable part of pre-operative assessment. It allows determination of whether a tear is reparable (retraction of the tendon and fatty degeneration of the corresponding muscle) and whether this is possible by arthroscopy (degree of tendon retraction and extension to subscapularis).

We have compared three different methods of treating symptomatic non-traumatic tears of the supraspinatus tendon in patients above 55 years of age. A total of 180 shoulders (173 patients) with supraspinatus tendon tears were randomly allocated into one of three groups (each of 60 shoulders); physiotherapy (group 1), acromioplasty and physiotherapy (group 2) and rotator cuff repair, acromioplasty and physiotherapy (group 3). The Constant score was assessed and followed up by an independent observer pre-operatively and at three, six and twelve months after the intervention.

Of these, 167 shoulders were available for assessment at one year (follow-up rate of 92.8%). There were 55 shoulders in group 1 (24 in males and 31 in females, mean age 65 years (55 to 79)), 57 in group 2 (29 male and 28 female, mean age 65 years (55 to 79)) and 55 shoulders in group 3 (26 male and 29 female, mean age 65 years (55 to 81)). There were no between-group differences in the Constant score at final follow-up: 74.1 (sd 14.2), 77.2 (sd 13.0) and 77.9 (sd 12.1) in groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively (p = 0.34). The mean change in the Constant score was 17.0, 17.5, and 19.8, respectively (p = 0.34). These results suggest that at one-year follow-up, operative treatment is no better than conservative treatment with regard to non-traumatic supraspinatus tears, and that conservative treatment should be considered as the primary method of treatment for this condition.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:75–81.

This paper describes the current views on the pathology of lesions of the tendon of the long head of biceps and their management. Their diagnosis is described and their surgical management classified, with details of the techniques employed.

This study examined the role of vitamin D as a factor accounting for fatty degeneration and muscle function in the rotator cuff. There were 366 patients with disorders of the shoulder. A total of 228 patients had a full-thickness tear (group 1) and 138 patients had no tear (group 2). All underwent magnetic resonance arthrography and an isokinetic muscle performance test. The serum concentrations of vitamin D (25(OH)D₃) were measured.

In general, a lower serum level of vitamin D was related to higher fatty degeneration in the muscles of the cuff. Spearman’s correlation coefficients were 0.173 (p = 0.001), −0.181 (p = 0.001), and −0.117 (p = 0.026) for supraspinatus, infraspinatus and subscapularis, respectively. In group 1, multivariate linear regression analysis revealed that the serum level of vitamin D was an independent variable for fatty degeneration of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus.

The serum vitamin D level has a significant negative correlation with the fatty degeneration of the cuff muscle and a positive correlation with isokinetic muscle torque.