Aims. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors for the failure of exchange nailing in nonunion of tibial diaphyseal fractures. . Patients and Methods. A cohort of 102 tibial diaphyseal nonunions in 101 patients with a mean age of 36.9 years (15 to 74) were treated between January 1992 and December 2012 by exchange nailing. Of which 33 (32%) were initially open injuries. The median time from primary fixation to exchange nailing was 6.5 months (interquartile range (IQR) 4.3 to 9.8 months). . The main outcome measures were union, number of secondary fixation procedures required to achieve union and time to union. . Univariate analysis and multiple regression were used to identify risk factors for failure to achieve union. . Results. Multiple causes for the primary nonunion were found for 28 (27%) tibiae, with infection present in 32 (31%). Six patients were lost to follow-up. Further surgical procedures were required in 35 (36%) nonunions. Other fixation modalities were required in five fractures. A single nail exchange procedure achieved union in 60/96 (63%) of all nonunions. Only 11 out of 31 infected nonunions (35.4%) healed after one exchange nail procedure. Up to five repeated exchange nailings, with or without bone grafting, ultimately achieved union in 89 (93%) fractures. The median time to union after exchange nailing was 8.7 months (IQR 5.7 to 14.0 months). Univariate analysis confirmed that an oligotrophic/atrophic pattern of nonunion (p = 0.002), a bone gap of 5 mm or more (p = 0.04) and infection (p < 0.001), were predictive for failure of exchange nailing Multiple regression analysis found that infection was the strongest predictor of failure (p < 0.001). . Conclusion. Exchange nailing is an effective treatment for aseptic tibial diaphyseal nonunion. However, in the presence of severe infection with a highly resistant organism, or extensive sclerosis of the bone, other fixation modalities, such as Ilizarov treatment, should be considered. Take home message: Exchange nailing is an effective treatment for aseptic tibial diaphyseal nonunion. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:534–41

Exchange nailing for failure of union after primary intramedullary nailing of the tibia is widely used but the indications and effectiveness have not been reported in detail. We have reviewed 33 cases of uninfected nonunion of the tibia treated by exchange nailing. This technique was successful without open bone grafting in all closed fractures and in open fractures of Gustilo types I, II and IIIa. The requirement for open bone grafting was reduced in type-IIIb fractures, but exchange nailing failed in type-IIIb fractures with significant bone loss. For these we recommend early open bone grafting. The most common complication was wound infection, seen more often than after primary nailing. We discuss our protocol for the use and timing of exchange nailing of all grades and types of tibial fracture

We describe a patient with insufficient bone regeneration of the tibia after bone transport over an intramedullary nail, in whom union was ultimately achieved after exchange nailing and intramedullary application of rh-bone morphogenetic protein-7 at the site of distraction

The results of the treatment of 31 open femoral fractures (29 patients) with significant bone loss in a single trauma unit were reviewed. A protocol of early soft-tissue and bony debridement was followed by skeletal stabilisation using a locked intramedullary nail or a dynamic condylar plate for diaphyseal and metaphyseal fractures respectively. Soft-tissue closure was obtained within 48 hours then followed, if required, by elective bone grafting with or without exchange nailing. The mean time to union was 51 weeks (20 to 156). The time to union and functional outcome were largely dependent upon the location and extent of the bone loss. It was achieved more rapidly in fractures with wedge defects than in those with segmental bone loss. Fractures with metaphyseal defects healed more rapidly than those of comparable size in the diaphysis. Complications were more common in fractures with greater bone loss, and included stiffness of the knee, malunion and limb-length discrepancy. Based on our findings, we have produced an algorithm for the treatment of these injuries. We conclude that satisfactory results can be achieved in most femoral fractures with bone loss using initial debridement and skeletal stabilisation to maintain length, with further procedures as required

We reviewed 27 diabetic patients who sustained a tibial fracture treated with a reamed intramedullary nail and compared them with a control group who did not have diabetes. There were 23 closed fractures and four were open. Union was delayed until after six months in 12 of the 23 (52%) diabetic patients with closed fractures and ten of the 23 (43%) control patients (p = 0.768). In two patients with diabetes (9%), closed tibial fractures failed to unite and required exchange nailing, whereas all closed fractures in the control group healed without further surgery (p = 0.489). In both the diabetic and control groups with closed fractures two patients (9%) developed superficial infections. There were two (9%) deep infections in diabetic patients with closed fractures, but none in the control group (p = 0.489). Overall, there was no significant difference in the rate of complications between the diabetic patients and the control group, but there was a tendency for more severe infections in patients with diabetes

We report the use of Grosse-Kempf reamed intramedullary nailing in the treatment of 41 Gustilo type II and III open tibial fractures. The union times and infection rates were similar to those previously reported for similar fractures treated by external skeletal fixation, but the incidence of malunion was less and fewer required bone grafting. The role of exchange nailing is discussed and a treatment protocol is presented for the management of delayed union and nonunion

Aims

Open tibial fractures are limb-threatening injuries. While limb loss is rare in children, deep infection and nonunion rates of up to 15% and 8% are reported, respectively. We manage these injuries in a similar manner to those in adults, with a combined orthoplastic approach, often involving the use of vascularised free flaps. We report the orthopaedic and plastic surgical outcomes of a consecutive series of patients over a five-year period, which includes the largest cohort of free flaps for trauma in children to date.

Aims

Type IIIB open tibial fractures are devastating high-energy injuries. At initial debridement, the surgeon will often be faced with large bone fragments with tenuous, if any, soft-tissue attachments. Conventionally these are discarded to avoid infection. We aimed to determine if orthoplastic reconstruction using mechanically relevant devitalized bone (ORDB) was associated with an increased infection rate in type IIIB open tibial shaft fractures.

Aims

The Precice intramedullary limb-lengthening system has demonstrated significant benefits over external fixation lengthening methods, leading to a paradigm shift in limb lengthening. This study compares outcomes following antegrade and retrograde femoral lengthening in both adolescent and adult patients.

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This study describes the use of the Masquelet technique to treat segmental tibial bone loss in 12 patients.

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Treatment guidelines for atypical femoral fractures associated with bisphosphonates have not been established. We conducted a systematic review of the treatment of atypical femoral fractures first, to evaluate the outcomes of surgical fixation of complete atypical fractures and secondly, to assess whether prophylactic surgery is necessary for incomplete atypical fractures.

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The management of open lower limb fractures in the United Kingdom has evolved over the last ten years with the introduction of major trauma networks (MTNs), the publication of standards of care and the wide acceptance of a combined orthopaedic and plastic surgical approach to management. The aims of this study were to report recent changes in outcome of open tibial fractures following the implementation of these changes.

Aims

The management of a significant bony defect following excision of a diaphyseal atrophic femoral nonunion remains a challenge. We present the outcomes using a combined technique of acute femoral shortening, stabilized with a long retrograde intramedullary nail, accompanied by bifocal osteotomy compression and distraction osteogenesis with a temporary monolateral fixator.

This paper summarises the current knowledge on the effects of medullary reaming of long-bone fractures. Following a review of intramedullary vascular physiology, the consequences for vascularity, the autograft effects, the generation of heat, and fat embolism are outlined. Also, alternative reaming techniques are described.

Infected nonunion of a long bone continues to present difficulties in management. In addition to treating the infection, it is necessary to establish bony stability, encourage fracture union and reconstruct the soft-tissue envelope.

We present a series of 67 infected nonunions of a long bone in 66 patients treated in a multidisciplinary unit. The operative treatment of patients suitable for limb salvage was performed as a single procedure. Antibiotic regimes were determined by the results of microbiological culture.

At a mean follow-up of 52 months (22 to 97), 59 patients (88%) had an infection-free united fracture in a functioning limb. Seven others required amputation (three as primary treatment, three after late failure of limb salvage and one for recalcitrant pain after union).

The initial operation achieved union in 54 (84%) of the salvaged limbs at a mean of nine months (three to 26), with recurrence of infection in 9%. Further surgery in those limbs that remained ununited increased the union rate to 62 (97%) of the 64 limbs treated by limb salvage at final follow-up. The use of internal fixation was associated with a higher risk of recurrent infection than external fixation.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:814–17.

Although it is widely accepted that grade IIIB open tibial fractures require combined specialised orthopaedic and plastic surgery, the majority of patients in the UK initially present to local hospitals without access to specialised trauma facilities. The aim of this study was to compare the outcome of patients presenting directly to a specialist centre (primary group) with that of patients initially managed at local centres (tertiary group).

We reviewed 73 consecutive grade IIIB open tibial shaft fractures with a mean follow-up of 14 months (8 to 48). There were 26 fractures in the primary and 47 in the tertiary group. The initial skeletal fixation required revision in 22 (47%) of the tertiary patients. Although there was no statistically-significant relationship between flap timing and flap failure, all the failures (6 of 63; 9.5%) occurred in the tertiary group. The overall mean time to union of 28 weeks was not influenced by the type of skeletal fixation. Deep infection occurred in 8.5% of patients, but there were no persistently infected fractures. The infection rate was not increased in those patients debrided more than six hours after injury.

The limb salvage rate was 93%. The mean limb functional score was 74% of that of the normal limb. At review, 67% of patients had returned to employment, with a further 10% considering a return after rehabilitation. The times to union, infection rates and Enneking limb reconstruction scores were not statistically different between the primary and tertiary groups.

The increased complications and revision surgery encountered in the tertiary group suggest that severe open tibial fractures should be referred directly to specialist centres for simultaneous combined management by orthopaedic and plastic surgeons.

Femoral lengthening using the Intramedullary Skeletal Kinetic Distractor is a new technique. However, with intramedullary distraction the surgeon has less control over the lengthening process. Therefore, 33 femora lengthened with this device were assessed to evaluate the effect of operative variables under the surgeon’s control on the course of lengthening. The desired lengthening was achieved in 32 of 33 limbs. Problems encountered included difficulty in achieving length in eight femora (24%) and uncontrolled lengthening in seven (21%). Uncontrolled lengthening was more likely if the osteotomy was placed with less than 80 mm of the thick portion of the nail in the distal fragment (p = 0.052), and a failure to lengthen was more likely if there was over 125 mm in the distal fragment (p = 0.008). The latter problem was reduced with over-reaming by 2.5 mm to 3 mm. Previous intramedullary nailing also predisposed to uncontrolled lengthening (p = 0.042), and these patients required less reaming.

Using the Intramedullary Skeletal Kinetic Distractor, good outcomes were obtained; problems were minimised by optimising the position of the osteotomy and the amount of over-reaming performed.

Fractures of the tibial shaft are common injuries, but there are no long-term outcome data in the era of increased surgical management. The aim of this prospective study was to assess the clinical and functional outcome of this injury at 12 to 22 years. Secondary aims were to determine the short- and long-term mortality, and if there were any predictors of clinical or functional outcome or mortality. From a prospective trauma database of 1502 tibial shaft fractures in 1474 consecutive adult patients, we identified a cohort of 1431 tibial diaphyseal fractures in 1403 patients, who fitted our inclusion criteria. There were 1024 men, and mean age at injury was 40.6 years. Fractures were classified according to the AO system, and open fractures graded after Gustilo and Anderson. Requirement of fasciotomy, time to fracture union, complications, incidence of knee and ankle pain at long-term follow-up, changes in employment and the patients’ social deprivation status were recorded. Function was assessed at 12 to 22 years post-injury using the Short Musculoskeletal Function Assessment and short form-12 questionnaires. Long-term functional outcome data was available for 568 of the surviving patients, 389 were deceased and 346 were lost to follow-up. Most fractures (90.7%, n = 1363) united without further intervention. Fasciotomies were performed in 11.5% of patients; this did not correlate with poorer functional outcome in the long term. Social deprivation was associated with a higher incidence of injury but had no impact on long-term function. The one-year mortality in those over 75 years of age was 29 (42%). At long-term follow-up, pain and function scores were good. However, 147 (26%) reported ongoing knee pain, 62 (10%) reported ankle pain and 97 (17%) reported both. Such joint pain correlated with poorer functional outcome.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1370–7.

Nonunion of the tibia associated with bone loss, previous infection, obliteration of the intramedullary canal or located in the distal metaphysis poses a challenge to the surgeon and significant morbidity to patients. We retrospectively reviewed the records of 24 patients who were treated by central bone grafting and compared them to those of 20 who were treated with a traditional posterolateral graft. Central bone grafting entails a lateral approach, anterior to the fibula and interosseous membrane which is used to create a central space filled with cancellous iliac crest autograft. Upon consolidation, a tibiofibular synostosis is formed that is strong enough for weight-bearing. This procedure has advantages over other methods of treatment for selected nonunions.

Of the 24 patients with central bone grafting, 23 went on to radiographic and clinical union without further intervention. All healed within a mean of 20 weeks (10 to 48). No further bone grafts were required, and few complications were encountered. These results were comparable to those of the 20 patients who underwent posterolateral bone grafting who united at a mean of 31.3 weeks (16 to 60) but one of whom required below-knee amputation for intractable sepsis.

Central bone grafting is a safe and effective treatment for difficult nonunions of the tibia.