The aim of this study is to print 3D polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds at high and low temperature (HT/LT) combined with salt leaching to induced porosity/larger pore size and improve material degradation without compromising cellular activity of printed scaffolds. PCL solutions with sodium chloride (NaCl) particles either directly printed in LT or were casted, dried, and printed in HT followed by washing in deionized water (DI) to leach out the salt. Micro-Computed tomography (Micro-CT) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were performed for morphological analysis. The effect of the porosity on the mechanical properties and degradation was evaluated by a tensile test and etching with NaOH, respectively. To evaluate cellular responses, human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hBMSCs) were cultured on the scaffolds and their viability, attachment, morphology, proliferation, and osteogenic differentiation were assessed. Micro-CT and SEM analysis showed that porosity induced by the salt leaching increased with increasing the salt content in HT, however no change was observed in LT. Structure thickness reduced with elevating NaCl content. Mass loss of scaffolds dramatically increased with elevated porosity in HT. Dog bone-shaped specimens with induced porosity exhibited higher ductility and toughness but less strength and stiffness under the tension in HT whereas they showed decrease in all mechanical properties in LT. All scaffolds showed excellent cytocompatibility. Cells were able to attach on the surface of the scaffolds and grow up to 14 days. Microscopy images of the seeded scaffolds showed substantial increase in the formation of extracellular matrix (ECM) network and elongation of the cells. The study demonstrated the ability of combining 3D printing and particulate leaching together to fabricate porous PCL scaffolds. The scaffolds were successfully printed with various salt content without negatively affecting cell responses. Printing porous thermoplastic polymer could be of great importance for temporary biocompatible implants in bone tissue engineering applications.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) have been used for bone regenerative applications as an alternative approach to bone grafting. Selecting the appropriate source of MSC is vital for the success of this therapeutic approach. MSC can be obtained from various tissues, but the most used sources of MSC are Bone marrow (BMSC), followed by adipose tissue (ASC). A donor-matched comparison of these two sources of MSC ensures robust and reliable results.

Despite the similarities in morphology and immunophenotype of donor-matched ASC and BMSC, differences existed in their proliferation and in vitro differentiation potential, particularly osteogenic differentiation that was superior for BMSC, compared to ASC. However, these differences were substantially influenced by donor variations. In vivo, although the upregulated expression of osteogenesis-related genes in both ASC and BMSC, more bone was regenerated in the calvarial defects treated with BMSC compared to ASC, especially during the initial period of healing. According to these findings, compared to ASC, BMSC may result in faster regeneration and healing, when used for bone regenerative applications.