Aims. The International Consensus Meeting on Musculoskeletal Infection (ICM, Philadelphia 2018) recommended histology as one of the diagnostic tests although this is not routinely used in a number of UK hospitals. This study aims to explore the role of histology in the diagnosis of infection and whether it is of practical use in those cases where the microbiology samples are either diagnostically unclear or do not correspond to the pre-operative diagnosis or the clinical picture. Patients and Methods. We identified 85 patients who underwent revision knee arthroplasty for either septic or aseptic loosening and for whom both microbiology and histology samples were taken. The procedures were performed by the senior experienced surgeons specialised in revision knee arthroplasty in two centres from Liverpool. Each patient had a minimum of five tissue samples taken, using separate knife and forceps and each sample was divided in half and sent for microbiology and histology in different containers. Fifty-four patients (63.5%) underwent a single-staged revision; ten patients (11.8%) underwent the 1. st. stage of a two staged revision; eleven patients (12.9%) underwent the 2. nd. stage of a two staged revision; one patient (1.2%) underwent an additional revision stage; three patients (3.5%) were treated with a DAIR; three patients (3.5%) had a 2-in-1 revision; two patients (2.4%) had a debridement and polyethylene exchange; and one patient (1.2%) had an arthroscopy biopsy of knee replacement. The cost to process five microbiology samples for each patient was £122.45 on average and for the five histology samples was £130. Results. In 63.5% (n=54) the histology and microbiology confirmed an aseptic joint as suspected beforehand. In 8.2% (n=7) the histology result was the same as the microbiology result confirming infection as suspected beforehand. In 15.3% (n=13) where asepsis was suspected beforehand, one of the five microbiology samples unexpectedly grew an organism but all the histological samples showed no evidence of infection. In these cases, the histology result supported the diagnosis of the likelihood of a contaminant. In 5.9% (n=5) we found differences in the microbiology and histology in one sample and in 7.1% (n=6) the histology was different to the microbiology in more than one sample. Conclusions. In cases where the diagnosis of sepsis within a knee replacement is not in doubt due to pre-operative microbiology, we found no benefit in additional histology sampling. In 28.3% of the cases, the histology was of use in the diagnosis of infection in complex cases and a useful tool in the decision process for further management. In over half of the cases where the revision was for aseptic loosening, the histology result did not alter the management but 28.3% of cases that were thought to be aseptic, microbiology revealed at least one positive sample hence the histology was of use in making a final diagnosis, be that of infection, contamination or to rule out infection. Whilst histology is of use in the latter groups but not the aseptic group, these outcomes are not predictable until after the post-operative period hence histology is required in all these cases. Overall, the histology is a cheap test which is of benefit in the diagnosis of complex peri-prosthetic joint infection in one–third of cases and we support the ICM recommendation

Aims. The aim of this study was to determine the diagnostic utility of histological analysis in spinal biopsies for spondylodiscitis (SD). Patients and Methods. Clinical features, radiology, results of microbiology, histology, and laboratory investigations in 50 suspected SD patients were evaluated. In 29 patients, the final (i.e. treatment-based) diagnosis was pyogenic SD; in seven patients, the final diagnosis was mycobacterial SD. In pyogenic SD, the neutrophil polymorph (NP) infiltrate was scored semi-quantitatively by determining the mean number of NPs per (×400) high-power field (HPF). Results. Of the 29 pyogenic SD patients, 17 had positive microbiology and 21 positive histology (i.e. one or more NPs per HPF on average). All non-SD patients showed less than one NP per HPF. The presence of one or more NPs per HPF had a diagnostic sensitivity of 72.4%, specificity 100%, accuracy 100%, positive predictive value (PPV) 81.0%, and negative predictive value (NPV) 61.9%. Sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were greater using the criterion of positive histology and/or microbiology than positive histology or microbiology alone. Granulomas were identified histologically in seven mycobacterial SD patients, and positive microbiology was detected in four. Conclusion. The diagnosis of pyogenic SD was more often confirmed by positive histology (one or more NPs per HPF on average) than by microbiology, although diagnostic sensitivity was greater when both histology and microbiology were positive. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:246–252

Aims. A revision for periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) in total hip arthroplasty (THA) has a major effect on the patient’s quality of life, including walking capacity. The objective of this case control study was to investigate the histological and ultrastructural changes to the gluteus medius tendon (GMED) in patients revised due to a PJI, and to compare it with revision THAs without infection performed using the same lateral approach. Methods. A group of eight patients revised due to a PJI with a previous lateral approach was compared with a group of 21 revised THAs without infection, performed using the same approach. The primary variables of the study were the fibril diameter, as seen in transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and the total degeneration score (TDS), as seen under the light microscope. An analysis of bacteriology, classification of infection, and antibiotic treatment was also performed. Results. Biopsy samples from the GMED from infected patients revealed a larger fibril diameter than control patients, as seen in the TEM (p < 0.001). Uninfected patients were slightly older and had their revisions performed significantly later than the infected patients. Histologically, samples from infected patients revealed significantly more vascularity (p < 0.001), the presence of glycosaminoglycans (p < 0.001), and a higher TDS (p = 0.003) than the control patients. The majority of patients had staphylococcal infections of various species. Conclusion. More histological degeneration in the GMED was found in patients undergoing THA revision surgery due to PJI than in patients undergoing THA revision surgery due to other reasons. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2023;4(8):628–635

This animal study compares different methods of performing an osteotomy, including using an Erbium-doped Yttrium Aluminum Garnet laser, histologically, radiologically and biomechanically. A total of 24 New Zealand rabbits were divided into four groups (Group I: multihole-drilling; Group II: Gigli saw; Group III: electrical saw blade and Group IV: laser). A proximal transverse diaphyseal osteotomy was performed on the right tibias of the rabbits after the application of a circular external fixator. The rabbits were killed six weeks after the procedure, the operated tibias were resected and radiographs taken. . The specimens were tested biomechanically using three-point bending forces, and four tibias from each group were examined histologically. Outcome parameters were the biomechanical stability of the tibias as assessed by the failure to load and radiographic and histological examination of the osteotomy site. . The osteotomies healed in all specimens both radiographically and histologically. The differences in the mean radiographic (p = 0.568) and histological (p = 0.71) scores, and in the mean failure loads (p = 0.180) were not statistically significant between the groups. . Different methods of performing an osteotomy give similar quality of union. The laser osteotomy, which is not widely used in orthopaedics is an alternative to the current methods. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:1628–33

Aim. The aim was to investigate the value of quantitative histological analysis in the diagnosis of fracture-related infection (FRI). Patients and Methods. The clinical features, microbiology culture results and histological analysis in 156 surgically treated non-unions were used to stratify the likelihood of associated infection. There were 64 confirmed infected non-unions (≥1 confirmatory criteria; pus, sinus and bacterial growth in ≥2 samples), 66 aseptic non-unions (no confirmatory criteria) and 26 possibly infected (pathogen identified from a single specimen and no confirmatory criteria). The histological inflammatory response was assessed by average neutrophil polymorphs (NPs) counts per high power field (HPF) and compared to the established diagnosis. Results. Assuming a cut-off of >5NPs/HPF for positive histological diagnosis, there was 80% sensitivity and 100% specificity (accuracy 90%). Using a cut-off of any NPs/HPF (>0) for negative histological diagnosis there was a sensitivity of 98% and a specificity of 85% (accuracy 92%). Conclusion. Histology can be used in a bimodal fashion as a diagnostic test for FRI. The presence of >5 NPs/HPF has a positive predictive value of 100%, while the complete absence of any NPs is almost always indicative of an aseptic non-union (negative predictive value: 98%)

Abstract. Objectives. To analyse the costs and benefits of sending femoral head specimens for histopathological analysis and whether our practice had changed since the original study five years ago. Methods. The cohort definition was patients who had both undergone hip hemiarthroplasties (HHAs) and had femoral head specimens sent for histopathological analysis at our tertiary care institution from 2013 to 2016. Retrospective review of clinical and electronic notes was performed on these patients for history of malignancy, histopathological diagnosis of femoral head, indication for histopathological examination and radiological studies. The total number of HHAs performed at the centre and the costs involved in analysing each femoral head specimen were identified. Results. A total of 805 HHAs were performed at the centre. We identified 56 femoral head specimens from 56 patients (6.96%) that were sent for histopathological analysis after HHA. 29 patients (51.79%) had a known history of malignancy. Three femoral head specimens (10.34%) were histologically positive for malignancy. Two patients had hip radiographs demonstrating metastasis to the femoral head. The third patient had a PET-CT scan two weeks prior to fracture that did not show signs of metastatic disease. 27 patients (48.21%) had no history of malignancy. None of their femoral head specimens were found to be histologically positive for malignancy. 10 patients had no appropriate indication for histopathological analysis. The cost savings for 27 patients with no previous history of malignancy ranged from €2,295 to €9,504. The cost savings for 10 patients with no appropriate indication ranged from €850 to €3,520. Conclusions. Histopathological analysis of femoral head specimens after HHA has little benefit for patients without a history of malignancy. The practice at our institution had not changed significantly in the past five years. Declaration of Interest. (b) declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported:I declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research project

Introduction. It is standard practice to send samples for microbiological and histological analysis during revision surgery in suspected prosthetic joint infection. The aim of our study was to analyse the utility of histology in decision making in these patients. Methods. We performed a retrospective review of all revision hip arthroplasty patients between from September 2013 and August 2016 from the hospital database. We analysed the results of aspiration, culture and sensitivity, histology from intra-operative samples and inflammatory markers. Diagnostic utility statistics were performed. Results. 135 revisions were included. The mean age of the patients was 64.2±2.34 years.114 patients had a single stage revision and 21 patients had more than one procedure. 4 patients grew organisms in 3/5 microscopy samples and 5 patients grew organisms in 1 or 2 samples. Histology showed infection in 4 patients. The sensitivity and specificity of microbiology tests in detecting infection were 90.9% and 93% respectively (positive predictive value ppv =58.8, negative predictive value npv = 99.2). The sensitivity and specificity for histology were 57.1% and 92.5% respectively (ppv = 40% and npv = 74.4%). The cost of performing histology analysis in these patients is £206.50. The financial savings if none of the patients had a histological analysis would have been £27877.50. Discussion. Histology does not add any information to the results of microbiological analysis in prosthetic joint infection. It does not contribute to any change in the management. The cost of performing a histological analysis in one patient is substantial with no clinical utility. Conclusion. We conclude that sending intra-operative samples for histology in addition to microbiological analysis has limited clinical utility and may be safely discontinued without any compromise in clinical decision making capacity and substantial financial savings

The aim of this study was to obtain detailed long-term data on the cement-bone interface in patients with cemented stems, implanted using the constrained fixation technique. A total of eight stems were removed together with adjacent bone during post-mortem examinations of patients with well-functioning prostheses. Specimens were cut at four defined levels, contact radiographs were obtained for each level, and slices were prepared for histological analysis. Clinical data, clinical radiographs, contact radiographs and histological samples were examined for signs of loosening and remodelling. The mean radiological follow-up was 9.6 years and all stems were well-fixed, based on clinical and radiological criteria. Contact radiographs revealed an incomplete cement mantle but a complete filling of the medullary canal for all implants. Various amounts of polyethylene particles were evident at the cement-bone interface of seven stems, with no accompanying inflammatory reaction. Cortical atrophy and the formation of an ‘inner cortex’ were confirmed in six of eight stems by contact radiographs and histology, but were only visible on two clinical radiographs. Our results confirm that a complete cement mantle is not essential for the survival of Müller straight stems into the mid term, and support our hypothesis that no benefit to long-term survival can be expected from modern cementing techniques

Aims. To investigate (1) The relationship between macroscopic grading and durability of cartilage repair following collagen-covered autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI-C) in the knee; (2) The influence of histology on durability of cartilage repair; (3) The relationship between macroscopic appearance and histology of repair tissue. Patients and methods. The modified Cincinnati scores (MCRS) of eighty-six patients were evaluated prospectively at one year and at the latest follow-up (mean follow-up = 4.7yrs. Range = 4 to 7 years). Needle biopsies of their cartilage repair site were stained with Haematoxylin and Eosin and some with Safranin O and the neo-cartilage was graded as hyaline-like (n=32, 37.2%), mixed fibro-hyaline (n=19, 22%) and fibro-cartilagenous tissue (n=35, 40.7%). Macroscopic grading of the repair tissue using the international cartilage repair society grading system (ICRS) was available for fifty-six patients in the study cohort. Statistical analyses were performed to investigate the significance of histology and ICRS grading on MCRS at 1 year and at the latest follow-up. Results. The MCRS of all three histology groups were comparable at one year evaluation (p=0.34). However, their clinical scores at the latest follow-up (mean = 4.7years) showed a significantly superior result for those with hyaline-like repair tissue when compared to those with mixed fibro-hyaline and fibro-cartilagenous repair (p=0.05). There was no correlation between the ICRS macroscopic grading and MCRS (clinical) grading either at one year (p=0.12) or at the latest follow-up (p=0.16). Also, the ICRS grading of the repair tissue did not correlate with its histological type (p=0.12). Conclusion. We conclude that any form of cartilage repair gave a good clinical outcome at one year. At four years and beyond, hyaline-like repair tissue was associated with a more favourable clinical outcome. Macroscopic evaluation using the ICRS grading system does not reflect the clinical outcome or its durability or the histological type of repair tissue

Autologous chondrocyte implantation is an option in the treatment of full-thickness chondral or osteochondral injuries which are symptomatic. The goal of surgery and rehabilitation is the replacement of damaged cartilage with hyaline or hyaline-like cartilage, producing improved levels of function and preventing early osteoarthritis. The intermediate results have been promising in terms of functional and clinical improvement. Our aim was to explore the hypothesis that the histological quality of the repair tissue formed after autologous chondrocyte implantation improved with increasing time after implantation. In all, 248 patients who had undergone autologous chondrocyte implantation had biopsies taken of the repair tissue which then underwent histological grading. Statistical analysis suggested that with doubling of the time after implantation the likelihood of a favourable histological outcome was increased by more than fourfold (p < 0.001)

Background: The exact incidence of cancer (primary/metastatic) leading to pathological fracture in femoral neck is not clear. Bone specimen is often sent for histology in suspicious cases. This retrospective study was aimed to answer the above question and to review our hospital practice in managing these patients. Materials & Methods: All patients with fracture neck of femur undergoing surgery and had bone specimen taken for histo-pathological examination between 01.01.2002 and 31.12.2003 were included. Case notes and histology reports were reviewed. Results: Out of total 533 patients with femoral neck fracture, 32 (6%) patients had bone specimen taken for histology. 9 male & 23 female patients with mean age of 82 years. 58% had past history of cancer (commonest being breast) with/without suspicious lesion on x-rays where as the remaining had no history of cancer but suspicious lesion on x-rays. 4 (12.5%) had positive histology results. All four had metastatic disease (2 from breast, 1 from renal and 1from multiple myeloma). Only 19% had results documented in case notes but 81% had reports filed in notes. Appropriate referral was made to oncology team for three patients. The fourth patient with multiple myeloma died in hospital before the referral. Four of 28 (14%) patients with negative results died within 3 years following the surgery compared to only 1 (multiple myeloma) out of 4 patients with positive results. Conclusion: The incidence of suspicious pathological femoral neck fracture was 6% but incidence of cancer was 0.7%. All positive cases were metastatic. Commonest primary was from breast – adenocarcinoma). Mortality in negative cases was 16% at average of 3 years compared to 25% in metastatic fracture patients

Aims: To investigate. the influence of histology on durability of cartilage repair following collagen-covered autologous chon-drocyte implantation (ACI-C) in the knee. the relationship between macroscopic grading and durability of cartilage repair; and. the relationship between macroscopic appearance and histology of repair tissue. Patients and methods: The modified Cincinnati scores (MCRS) of eighty-six patients were evaluated prospectively at one year and at the latest follow-up (mean follow-up = 4.7yrs. Range = 4 to 7 years). Biopsies of their cartilage repair site were stained with Haema-toxylin and Eosin and some with Safranin O and the neo-cartilage was graded as hyaline-like (n=32), mixed fibro-hyaline (n=19) and fibro-cartilagenous tissue (n=35). Macroscopic grading of the repair tissue using the international cartilage repair society grading system (ICRS) was available for fifty-six patients in this study cohort. Statistical analyses were performed to investigate the significance of histology and ICRS grading on MCRS at 1 year and at the latest follow-up. Results: The MCRS of all three histology groups were comparable at one year evaluation (p=0.34). However, their clinical scores at the latest follow-up showed a significantly superior result for those with hyaline-like repair tissue when compared to those with mixed fibro-hyaline and fibro-cartilagenous repair (p=0.05). There was no correlation between the ICRS grading and MCRS either at one year (p=0.12) or at the latest follow-up (p=0.16). Also, the ICRS grading of the repair tissue did not correlate with its histological type (p=0.12). Conclusion: We conclude that any form of cartilage repair gives good clinical outcome at one year. At four years and beyond, hyaline-like repair tissue produces a more favourable clinical outcome. Macroscopic evaluation using the ICRS grading system does not reflect the clinical outcome or its durability or the histological type of repair tissue

The radiographic and histological features of radiolucent areas at the cement-bone interface were correlated in 15 specimens retrieved at post-mortem from patients who had undergone cemented total hip arthroplasty, two weeks to 15 years prior to death. All but one of the components were securely fixed, as demonstrated by direct measurements of micromotion. Extensive radiolucencies were present in all but one case. In 11 of the 14 specimens with radiolucencies, histological examination showed that the radiolucent areas represented regions of osteoporosis and bone remodelling. The remodelling changes were characterised by osteoporosis, cancellisation and thinning of the endosteal cortex, and osteopenia of the trabecular bone. In two specimens the appearance of radiolucency was found to be due to fibrous tissue at the cement-bone interface and in one specimen there was a mixed picture of osteolysis and fibrosis. The study demonstrates that radiolucent lines can occur with well-fixed components and that they may commonly represent osteoporosis rather than the presence of a fibrous membrane at the cement-bone interface

Objectives. This study aimed to evaluate the histological and mechanical features of tendon healing in a rabbit model with second-harmonic-generation (SHG) imaging and tensile testing. Materials and Methods. A total of eight male Japanese white rabbits were used for this study. The flexor digitorum tendons in their right leg were sharply transected, and then were repaired by intratendinous stitching. At four weeks post-operatively, the rabbits were killed and the flexor digitorum tendons in both right and left legs were excised and used as specimens for tendon healing (n = 8) and control (n = 8), respectively. Each specimen was examined by SHG imaging, followed by tensile testing, and the results of the two testing modalities were assessed for correlation. Results. While the SHG light intensity of the healing tendon samples was significantly lower than that of the uninjured tendon samples, 2D Fourier transform SHG images showed a clear difference in collagen fibre structure between the uninjured and the healing samples, and among the healing samples. The mean intensity of the SHG image showed a moderate correlation (R. 2. = 0.37) with Young’s modulus obtained from the tensile testing. Conclusion. Our results indicate that SHG microscopy may be a potential indicator of tendon healing. Cite this article: E. Hase, K. Sato, D. Yonekura, T. Minamikawa, M. Takahashi, T. Yasui. Evaluation of the histological and mechanical features of tendon healing in a rabbit model with the use of second-harmonic-generation imaging and tensile testing. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:577–585. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.511.BJR-2016-0162.R1

Objectives. This study aimed to characterise and qualitatively grade the severity of the corrosion particles released into the hip joint following taper corrosion. Methods. The 26 cases examined were CoC/ABG Modular (n = 13) and ASR/SROM (n = 13). Blood serum metal ion levels were collected before and after revision surgery. The haematoxylin and eosin tissue sections were graded on the presence of fibrin exudates, necrosis, inflammatory cells and corrosion products. The corrosion products were identified based on visible observation and graded on abundance. Two independent observers blinded to the clinical patient findings scored all cases. Elemental analysis was performed on corrosion products within tissue sections. X-Ray diffraction was used to identify crystalline structures present in taper debris. Results. The CoC/ABG Modular patients had a mean age of 64.6 years (49.4 to 76.5) and ASR/SROM patients had a mean age of 58.2 years (33.3 to 85.6). The mean time in situ for CoC/ABG was 4.9 years (2 to 6.4) and ASR/SROM was 6.1 years (2.5 to 8.1). The blood serum metal ion concentrations reduced following revision surgery with the exception of Cr levels within CoC/ABG. The grading of tissue sections showed that the macrophage response and metal debris were significantly higher for the ASR/SROM patients (p < 0.001). The brown/red particles were significantly higher for ASR/SROM (p < 0.001). The taper debris contained traces of titanium oxide, chromium oxide and aluminium nitride. Conclusion. This study characterised and qualitatively graded the severity of the corrosion particles released into the hip joint from tapers that had corrosion damage. Cite this article: S. Munir, R. A. Oliver, B. Zicat, W. L. Walter, W. K. Walter, W. R. Walsh. The histological and elemental characterisation of corrosion particles from taper junctions. Bone Joint Res 2016;5:370–378. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.59.2000507

Summary Statement. Atypical femoral fractures consist of a thin fracture line extending through the lateral cortex. The adjacent bone is undergoing resorption and mechanical abrasion and is often replaced with woven bone. The mechanical environment seems to inhibit healing. Background. The pathophysiology behind bisphosphonate-associated atypical femoral fractures remains unclear. Histological findings at the fracture site itself might provide important clues. So far only one case describing the histological appearance of the fracture has been published. Methods. Between 2008 and 2013, bone biopsies comprising the fracture site were collected from 8 patients with 4 displaced and 4 undisplaced atypical femoral fractures. Seven female patients reported continuous bisphosphonate use for an average of 9.5 years. One patient was a man, not using bisphosphonates. The bone biopsies were evaluated histologically, with Fourier transformed infrared imaging (FTIR) and micro-computed tomography. Results. The 4 undisplaced fractures engaged the whole cortical thickness and comprised a 150 to 200 µm wide, meandering fracture gap filled with amorphous necrotic material. Von Kossa staining showed occasional mineralised elements with bony structure within the amorphic material. Active resorption and remodeling was common in the close vicinity of the fracture, but seldom reached into the fracture gap. In some areas, the bone adjacent to the gap appeared to undergo fragmentation and disintegration, possibly due to abrasion. Woven bone was common adjacent to the fracture gap, and appeared to have been formed in defects caused by abrasion or where resorption cavities had reached into the fracture gap. Periosteal and endosteal callus was found in all cases. Far away from the fracture, large areas of osteonal bone with only empty osteocyte lacunae were found in some samples. In one patient, the remodeling process bridged the fracture gap at some points. The fracture was otherwise similar to the other undisplaced fractures. This patient had suffered from thigh pain since her bisphosphonate treatment was discontinued 18 months earlier, when the atypical fracture was diagnosed. Discussion. Atypical femoral fractures show signs of increased remodeling in the vicinity of the fracture gap. The narrow width of the gap and its necrotic contents suggest that micromotion leads to strains between the fracture fragments that precludes survival of ingrowing cells. Moreover, there seemed to be continuous mechanical fragmentation of the bone at the crack, and replacement of fragmented areas with woven bone. Thus, it appears that the fracture line is not static, but moves in the bone over time, like the changes in the course of a meandering river

Intraoperative histology has a high specificity and sensitivity to identify prosthetic joint infection. However, the usefulness of this technique according to the type of microorganism isolated in the periprosthetic tissue has not previously been studied. Frozen sections and cultures from periprosthetic tissue of 38 revision arthroplasties performed due to prosthetic joint infection were retrospectively reviewed. Frozen sections were evaluated according to Mirras’ criteria (adapted by Feldman). Culture was considered positive when the same microorganism was isolated in at least 2 samples or the presence of pus around the prosthesis. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) was the aetiology in 13 cases, Gram-negative bacilli in 8, S. aureus in 7, Candida sp and Peptococcus sp in 2 and Enterococcus sp, S.pneumoniae and in 1 case each one. No microorganism was isolated in 4 cases. Frozen sections revealed more than 5 neuthrophils per high power field (forty times) in at least five fields in all cases except in 2 out of 13 caused by CNS (15.3%). A revision of the articles that provided information on the aetiology and the histology supports the findings of our study. In conclusion, frozen section using Feldman’s criteria had a 15.3% of false negative cases when CNS was the aetiology of the prosthetic joint infection

This study documents the gross and histologic structure of the infrapatellar plica, and fat pad, and adds to an earlier report to the COA. The important new findings are that the femoral attachment of the plica is an enthesis, and that the plica itself is. This study seeks to demonstrate that the structure of the fat pad (FP) and infrapatellar plica (IPP) is that of an enthesis organ. Twelve fresh frozen cadaver knees, each with an IPP, were dissected and the gross anatomic features recorded. The IPP and FP were harvested for study. Representative histologic sections were prepared on tissue fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin, embedded in paraffin, cut at 4 microns on a rotatory microtome. Staining techniques included hematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, elastic stain and S100. Appropriate decalcification of sections of the femoral insertion of the IPP was performed. All sections were examined by light microscopy at low, medium and high power. IPP types included 8 separate, 1 split, 2 fenestrated, and one vertical septum. The origin of the IPP is a fibrous arc arising from the apex of the notch separate from the margin of the articular cartilage. This attachment site is the instant centreof rotation of the IPP and FP; they are thus not isometric. The central zone of the IPP consists of a mix of connective tissue types. Representative sections taken of the femoral attachment of the IPP display a transition zone between dense fibrillar collagen of the IPP, then fibrocartilage and cortical bone similar to a ligament attachment site or enthesis. The central plica histology is composed predominantly of dense regular connective tissue with variable clear space between the collagen bundles, and is thus ligamentous. There is abundant elastase staining throughout, as well as crimping of the collagen suggesting capacity for stretch. S100 staining demonstrates nerves around and in the substance of the IPP. The central body shows lobulated collections of mature adipose tissue admixed with loose connective tissue, containing abundant small peripheral nerves and vessels (all showing crimping and redundancy), merging with the dense fibrous tissue of the IPP. The FP is highly innervated, deformable, and fibro-fatty. Its histology shows lobules of fat, separated by connective tissue septa, which merge with the synovial areolar membrane surrounding the FP. The linked structures, IPP, central body, and FP occupy the anterior compartment, and function as an enthesis organ: the IPP tethers the FP via the central body and together they rotate around the femoral origin of the IPP. They are not isometric, and must stretch and relax with knee motion. The histology correlates with this requirement. The origin of the IPP is an enthesis, a new observation. Elastase staining, redundancy of vessels and nerves, crimping and redundancy of the dense connective tissue all reflect the requirement to deform. The fat pad merges with the central body, both highly innervated space fillers, tethered by the IPP, which is a non-isometric ligament, also containing nerves. The important clinical significance of these structures is that release of the IPP at the origin reuces or eliminates anterior knee pain in most

Purpose of study:. “Ganglia are a benign condition taking up the time of competent surgeons who might be more usefully engaged.” – McEvedy. Our aim was to perform a retrospective review comparing preoperative clinical presentation, intraoperative findings and histological diagnosis of all hand and wrist ganglia presenting to the Hand Unit at Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital. Methods:. A retrospective review of hand and wrist ganglia treated at the Hand Unit at Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital. Clinical and surgical notes and histology reports were reviewed. All ganglia were removed surgically as directed by clinical findings. Results:. A total of 75 hand and wrist masses were operated over a period of 6 months between January and June 2012. Of these 42 were clinically diagnosed as ganglia. All 42 “ganglia” were removed surgically and sent for histological evaluation. Of these, 40 were diagnosed intra-operatively as ganglia. In 2 cases the diagnoses were changed intra-operatively to synovitis and Giant Cell Tumor of tendon sheath. Histologically 5 out of 42 cases were found not to be ganglia; their diagnoses were as follows:. 1. Granulomatous synovitis. 2. Chronic inflammation (possible tuberculous). 3. Giant Cell Tumour of Tendon Sheath. (Correlates with intra-op diagnosis). 4. Nerve sheath tumour (Schwannoma). 5. Chronic bursitis. Conclusion:. Be wary of “the simple ganglion”. Other conditions may mimic a ganglion with potentially disastrous consequence if misdiagnosed. In our setting histological evaluation is compulsory. Always follow the patient up and confirm histological diagnosis

Introduction: Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation (ACI) is a treatment option for full-thickness chondral, or osteochondral injuries that are painful and debilitating. Goals of surgery and rehabilitation include replacement of damaged cartilage with hyaline or hyaline-like cartilage, leading eventually to improved level of function. Intermediate and long-term results are promising in terms of functional and clinical improvement. Purpose: To explore the hypothesis that the quality of the repair tissue, formed following Autologous Chondrocyte Implantation (ACI), improves with time post-surgery. Methods and Results: Two hundred and forty eight patients who underwent autologous chondrocyte implantation in our institution were studied after having had post implantation biopsies of the repair tissue. Mean timing of biopsy was 14.8 months (range 3–55). 59 biopsies gave hyaline tissue (24%), 67 mixed hyaline and fibrocartilage (27%), 113 biopsies were fibrocartilage only (46%) and 9 patients had a fibrous tissue biopsy result (9%). Due to NHS restraints and waiting list targets biopsies were actually performed at various time points post implantation allowing us to statistically correlate histological findings with the maturity of the repair tissue. Our statistical analysis suggests that if time post implantation doubles then the likelihood of a favourable histological outcome increases significantly. Conclusion: Autologous chondrocyte implantation forms a durable repair tissue that remodels and continues to improve in quality with time. It is recommended that for future research/study purposes 24 months is used as an optimal time to look at histology, since our data show that outcome is still improving until this point