Aims. Traumatic central cord syndrome (CCS) typically follows a hyperextension injury and results in motor impairment affecting the upper limbs more than the lower, with occasional sensory impairment and urinary retention. Current evidence on mortality and long-term outcomes is limited. The primary aim of this study was to assess the five-year mortality of CCS, and to determine any difference in mortality between management groups or age. Methods. Patients aged ≥ 18 years with a traumatic CCS between January 2012 and December 2017 in Wales were identified. Patient demographics and data about injury, management, and outcome were collected. Statistical analysis was performed to assess mortality and between-group differences. Results. A total of 65 patients were identified (66.2% male (n = 43), mean age 63.9 years (SD 15.9)). At a minimum of five years’ follow-up, 32.3% of CCS patients (n = 21) had died, of whom six (9.2%) had died within 31 days of their injury. Overall, 69.2% of patients (n = 45) had been managed conservatively. There was no significant difference in age between conservatively and surgically managed patients (p = 0.062). Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed no significant difference in mortality between patients managed conservatively and those managed surgically (p = 0.819). However, there was a significant difference in mortality between the different age groups (< 50 years vs 50 to 70 years vs > 70 years; p = 0.001). At five years’ follow-up, 55.6% of the patient group aged > 70 years at time of injury had died (n = 15). Respiratory failure was the most common cause of death (n = 9; 42.9%). Conclusion. Almost one-third of patients with a traumatic CCS in Wales had died within five years of their injury. The type of management did not significantly affect mortality but their age at the time of injury did. Further work to assess the long-term functional outcomes of surviving patients is needed to generate more reliable prognostic information. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(8):920–927

Aims. Traumatic central cord syndrome (CCS) typically follows a hyperextension injury and results in a motor impairment affecting the upper limbs more than the lower limbs, with occasional sensory impairment and urinary retention seen. Current evidence on mortality and long-term outcomes is limited. The primary aim of this study is to assess the five-year mortality of CCS, and to determine any difference in mortality between management groups or age. Patients and Methods. Patients ≥18 years with traumatic CCS between January 2012 and December 2017 in Wales were identified. Patient demographics and injury, management and outcome data was collected. Statistical analysis was performed to assess mortality and between group differences. Results. 65 patients were identified (66.2% male, mean age 63.9 years). At five-years follow-up, 32.3% (n=21) of CCS patients were dead. 6 (9.2%) patients had died within 31 days of their injury. 69.2% (n=45) of patients were managed conservatively and there was no significant difference (p=0.062) in age between conservatively and surgically managed patients. Kaplan-Meier analysis revealed no significant difference in mortality between patients managed conservatively compared to those managed surgically (log rank test, p=0.819). However, there was a significant difference (p=0.001) in mortality between the different age groups (<50 years vs 50–70 years vs >70 years). At five-years follow up, 55.6% of the patient group aged >70 years at time of injury were dead. Respiratory failure was the most common cause of death (n=9, 42.9%). Conclusion. Almost one third of patients with traumatic CCS in Wales were dead at five years following their injury. Management type did not significantly affect mortality, however age at time of injury did. Further work assessing the long-term functional outcomes of surviving patients is needed, to allow more reliable prognostic information and functional recovery predictions to be given

Introduction: This retrospective study examined the clinical characteristics, radiological findings, management, and functional outcome in 34 rehabilitated patients who presented with traumatic central cord syndrome. Methods: Between 1994 and 2004 a total of 34 patients with central cord syndrome were admitted to the National Spinal Injuries Unit. There were 29 men and 5 women. The mean age was 56.1 years (15 to 88). The mean follow up time was 4.9 years. Patients were divided into three groups by age, < 50 years (10 patients), 50–70 years (16 patients), and > 70 years (8 patients). The American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) system recorded the motor and sensory scores, of upper and lower limbs, on admission, discharge and during rehabilitation. Patients underwent radiological investigation that included plain film, CT, and MRI of the cervical spine. Results: The mechanism of injury was a fall in 58.8%, road traffic accident in 35.2% and other in 6%. Alcohol was a contributing factor in 32.4% of cases. Seven patients had a spinal fracture. The cervical spine was involved in 5 cases with the remaining 2 cases involving the thoracic spine. Seventy percent of patients received intravenous steroids. Over half (53%) of the patients had some degree of cervical spondylosis while cord changes were seen in almost all of the patients (79.4%). In the majority of cases (70.4%) the affected level was C3/4. Disc herniation was present in one third of cases (33.2%). The mean upper limb ASIA score on admission was 7.6, on discharge was 12.4 and at follow up was 20.2. A similar pattern was also observed in the lower limb with scores of 12.1, 13.7, and 20.5 respectively. Sensory loss also improved with time. 88.2% of those admitted required urinary catheterization, with 23.5% being discharged to the National Rehabilitation Hospital with a catheter in situ. Surgical decompression was performed in 7 cases. The remainder of patients wore a Miami-J cervical collar. Conclusion: As was shown in the original paper by Schneider et al (1954), hyperextension of a degenerative cervical spine was the predominant mechanism of injury. The return of lower limb function precedes that of upper limb, with autonomic function recovering in the majority of cases. Discussion: In this study patients in the younger age groups had better recovery of function and had fewer complications. The original paper by Schneider et al. stated that conservative treatment was most appropriate, however, in this review surgery was performed in specific cases such as those with cord compression secondary to disc herniation. Alcohol was a significant contributing factor

A review of 77 patients with traumatic central cord syndrome revealed that atypical variations are more common than the existing literature suggests and that these may be seen in a wide variety of acute injuries to the cervical spine. In general the outcome is good; a favourable prognosis on admission is suggested by good hand function, hyperpathia, Lhermitte's sign and normal perianal sensation. The study has highlighted the value of regular muscle charting and has cast doubt on previous neuroanatomical assumptions about the syndrome

We studied 32 patients with central cord syndrome who were managed conservatively. Six were under 50 years of age (group 1), 16 between 50 and 70 years (group 2) and ten over 70 years (group 3). At the time of discharge all patients in group 1 could walk independently and had good bladder control compared with 11 (69%) and 14 (88%) in group 2 and four (40%) and two (20%) in group 3, respectively. At follow-up after a mean of 8.6 years (4 to 15), ten patients had died leaving 22 in the study. All those in group 1 were alive, could walk independently and had bladder control. In group 2, 13 were alive of whom ten (77%) could walk independently and nine (69%) had bladder control. In group 3 only three were alive of whom only one was independent and none had bladder control. Function at discharge as measured by the ASIA motor scoring system was usually maintained or improved at follow-up, but patients over 70 years of age at injury did poorly

Initial treatment of traumatic spinal cord injury remains as controversial in 2023 as it was in the early 19th century, when Sir Astley Cooper and Sir Charles Bell debated the merits or otherwise of surgery to relieve cord compression. There has been a lack of high-class evidence for early surgery, despite which expeditious intervention has become the surgical norm. This evidence deficit has been progressively addressed in the last decade and more modern statistical methods have been used to clarify some of the issues, which is demonstrated by the results of the SCI-POEM trial. However, there has never been a properly conducted trial of surgery versus active conservative care. As a result, it is still not known whether early surgery or active physiological management of the unstable injured spinal cord offers the better chance for recovery. Surgeons who care for patients with traumatic spinal cord injuries in the acute setting should be aware of the arguments on all sides of the debate, a summary of which this annotation presents.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):347–355.

Introduction Cervical cord neuropraxia (CCN) and incomplete cord injuries such as central cord syndrome (CCS) are more prevalent in patients with congenitally narrow spinal canals. At Middlemore Hospital, Polynesian and Maori males are frequent in that group of patients who have experienced a single episode of CCN or CCS. The aim of this study was determine if these racial groups were over-represented in patients with incomplete cord injuries, and if there was an ethnic variation in mid-sagittal diameter of the cervical spine in the general population. Methods A chart review of all patients who experienced either CCS or CCN in the absence of significant fracture dislocation or disc prolapse was performed. The ethnic origin of these patients was noted. CT scan was used to measure the mid-sagittal diameter of the spinal canal from C3 to C7 in a group of 166 sequential trauma patients who had CT scans of the cervical spine at Middlemore Hospital. Patient’s race was that declared by the patient. Four different observers used computer digitisation to measure the mid-sagittal diameters and mean sagittal diameter for each level. Measurements were compared between races. Results Between 2000 and 2004, eight patients (7 males, 1 female) were noted to have a central cord syndrome or cervical neuropraxia in the absence of fracture dislocation, acute disc prolapse or developmental spinal stenosis. Five patients were Polynesian, two Maori and one European. CT scan assessment of the 166 patients noted Maori cervical spine canals to be 1mm smaller than Europeans (P values less than .005 at all levels of the C-spine) whilst Polynesians had on average 2mm smaller mid-sagittal diameter compared to Europeans (all P values less than 0.001). Discussion Patients with congenital reduction in spinal canal diameter have an increased risk of transient neuropraxia (Torg J. J Bone Joint Surg. 1996), neurological injury (Matsura P et al. J Bone Joint Surg. 1989) and more significant myelopathy in the presence of trauma (Eismont FJ et. al. Spine 1984). This study demonstrates that Polynesians were over-represented in the group of patients who experienced central cord syndrome or transient cervical neuropraxia. CT scan assessment demonstrated that both Maoris and Polynesians had significantly narrower canals than their European counterparts. Previous studies have demonstrated that South African blacks have significantly narrow mid-sagittal diameter than Caucasians (Taitz C. Clin Anat. 1996). The implications of this study are that Maori and Polynesians involved in high impact activities such as rugby may be at increased risk of incomplete or complete spinal cord injuries. There is however no reliable screening tool available for congenital spinal canal stenosis

Over the past 19 years we have operated on 269 patients with myelopathy associated with cervical spondylosis. We report our results in 191 cases which we have followed up for 1 to 12 years (average 31 months). The clinical state before and after operation was recorded using the criteria of the Japanese Orthopaedic Association. Posterior operations gave better results than anterior for the more advanced myelopathies such as transverse lesions, the Brown-Sequard syndrome and the motor syndromes, but the brachialgia and cord syndrome and the central cord syndrome were satisfactorily treated by anterior operations. Of the three anterior and three posterior techniques used, no single one showed an overall superiority. A short duration of symptoms before operation was associated with better results, but these were not influenced by the age of the patients

Ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL) is a condition found predominantly in the oriental population and is rarely seen in non orientals. OPLL can present with cervical canal stenosis and myelopathy (including central cord syndrome), often following minor trauma. Co-existence of OPLL with diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) is a rare condition and very few reports of such patients exist in literature. Here we report the case of a Caucasian with co-existing DISH and OPLL, presenting with acute central cord syndrome associated with fracture of the ossification. A 64 year old Caucasian farmer was transferred to our spinal unit with weakness in the right upper limb following a road traffic accident. On examination he had hyperaesthesia in both upper limbs and motor power of grade 4 in the right upper limb with a distal motor power of grade 3 in the hand. There was no motor deficit in the left upper limb or lower limbs. Radiographs revealed an ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament with a break at C2 and C3 levels. He also had exuberant soft tissue ossification in the cervical and thoracic spines, suggestive of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). He recovered completely in 6 weeks with non operative treatment. Fracture of the posterior longitudinal ligament has not been widely reported, although it is possibly more prevalent than is recognised. We report this case in order to highlight the importance of recognising this condition in non oriental populations and to demonstrate that non operative treatment has a good prognosis

Cervical Cord Neuropraxia (CCN) and incomplete cord injuries such as Central Cord Syndrome (CCS) are more prevalent in patients with congenitally narrow spinal canals. The aim of this study was to identify if racial groups were over represented in patients with incomplete cord injuries, and if there was an ethnic variation in mid sagittal cervical spine diameter in the general population. CT scan was used to measure the mid sagittal diameter of the C3 to C7 cervical vertebrae in a group of 166 sequential trauma patients who had CT scans of the cervical spine at Middlemore Hospital. Patient’s race was that declared by the patient. Four different observers used computer digitisation to measure the mid sagittal diameters and mean sagittal diameter for each level. Measurements were compared between races. Maori cervical spine canals were found to be 1mm smaller than Europeans (P values less than 0.005) whilst Polynesians had on average a 2mm smaller mid sagittal diameter compared to Europeans (all P values less than 0.001). This study has demonstrated that Polynesians were over represented in the group of patients who experienced CCS or Transient Cervical Neuropraxia. CT scan assessment demonstrated that both Maoris and Polynesians had significantly narrower canals than their European counterparts. The implications of this study are that Maori and Polynesians involve in high impact activities such as rugby may be at increased risk of incomplete or complete spinal cord injuries. There is however no reliable screening tool available for congenital spinal canal stenosis

Treated conservatively, hyperextension injuries of the cervical spine have a poor outcome, but surgical treatment does not yet provide a realistic alternative. This study was prompted by the lack of classifications of cervical spondylosis and outcome studies of hyperextension in the literature, and the absence of a user-friendly neurological score. The retrospective study included 60 patients admitted over the last 12 years with hyperextension injuries and varying degrees of neurological deficit. The mean age of patients was 52 years and most had radiological evidence of cervical spondylosis. None had any neurological deficit before the accident. Injuries were sustained in falls in 56%, in motor vehicle accidents in 34%, in assaults in 8% and in sports injuries in 2%. The neurological deficits varied: 11% had complete lesions, 33% central cord syndrome, 18% motor complete-sensory incomplete, 33% motor incomplete-sensory incomplete. The nervous system was normal in 2%. The posterior columns were often involved, with loss of pro-prioception. In the majority of cases conservative treatment consisted of six weeks of light traction in gentle flexion, followed by mobilisation in an ABCO brace for six weeks. The results showed that the mean Asia score gain for the group treated conservatively was 23, for the surgically stabilised group 3 and the surgically- decompressed group 55. There was a 16% mortality rate. The mean time for rehabilitation was 5.5 months. Both the final outcome and the time to rehabilitation were extremely variable. We present a classification of cervical spondylosis and ways of measuring congenital and acquired spinal cord narrowing. We combine the Asia and Frankel scoring systems to give a user-friendly guide

Aims

The aim of this study was to determine whether early surgical treatment results in better neurological recovery 12 months after injury than late surgical treatment in patients with acute traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI).

There are many causes of paraspinal muscle weakness which give rise to the dropped-head syndrome. In the upper cervical spine the central portion of the spinal cord innervates the cervical paraspinal muscles. Dropped-head syndrome resulting from injury to the central spinal cord at this level has not previously been described. We report two patients who were treated acutely for this condition. Both presented with weakness in the upper limbs and paraspinal cervical musculature after a fracture of C2. Despite improvement in the strength of the upper limbs, the paraspinal muscle weakness persisted in both patients. One ultimately underwent cervicothoracic fusion to treat her dropped-head syndrome.

While the cause of the dropped-head syndrome cannot be definitively ascribed to the injuries to the spinal cord, this pattern is consistent with the known patho-anatomical mechanisms of both injury to the central spinal cord and dropped-head syndrome.

We assessed the frequency and causes of neurological deterioration in 59 patients with spinal cord injury on whom reports were prepared for clinical negligence litigation. In those who deteriorated neurologically we assessed the causes of the change in neurology and whether that neurological deterioration was potentially preventable. In all 27 patients (46%) changed neurologically, 20 patients (74% of those who deteriorated) had no primary neurological deficit. Of those who deteriorated, 13 (48%) became Frankel A. Neurological deterioration occurred in 23 of 38 patients (61%) with unstable fractures and/or dislocations; all 23 patients probably deteriorated either because of failures to immobilise the spine or because of inappropriate removal of spinal immobilisation. Of the 27 patients who altered neurologically, neurological deterioration was, probably, avoidable in 25 (excess movement in 23 patients with unstable injuries, failure to evacuate an epidural haematoma in one patient and over-distraction following manipulation of the cervical spine in one patient). If existing guidelines and standards for the management of actual or potential spinal cord injury had been followed, neurological deterioration would have been prevented in 25 of the 27 patients (93%) who experienced a deterioration in their neurological status.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:527–31.