Fracture healing is an issue that has not yet been fully elucidated. It is generally accepted in the literature that head trauma accelerates fracture healing and causes higher volume callus tissue. Recent studies have examined the relationship between head trauma and fracture healing more molecularly. Based on this research; the aim of this study is to show the effect of head trauma on fracture healing radiologically and histologically and to investigate the relationship between serum β-Catenin level and fracture healing with the experiment we performed on rats. A total of 36 Wistar Albino female rats with a mean age of 24 weeks were included in the study with the permission of Mersin University Animal Experiments Local Ethics Committee. Six rats in the first group were not traumatized and their blood samples were collected on the day of the experiment started, end of the third week and end of the sixth week. In the second group, only head trauma was performed and blood samples were collected at the end of the third and sixth weeks. In the third group, only open femoral fracture model was applied, blood samples were collected at the third and sixth weeks and AP and Lateral radiographs of the fractured femurs were taken. After sacrification, femurs were dissected from the surrounding soft tissues and subjected to histological examination. In the fourth group, both head trauma and open femur fracture model were applied, blood samples were collected at the end of third and sixth weeks and AP and Lateral radiographs of the fractured femurs were taken. After sacrification, femurs were dissected from the surrounding soft tissues and subjected to histological examination. The expression level of β-Catenin was measured by PCR from all blood samples. Direct radiographs of the third and fourth groups at 3 and 6 weeks were evaluated by two orthopedists according to Rust and Lane & Sandhu scoring system. The histomorphometric examination was performed by evaluating the Huo scoring and the ratio of fracture callus components (cartilage callus, bone callus, fibrous callus) to areas. According to PCR analysis, the change of expression of β-Catenin by weeks was not statistically significant in the first and second groups. However, a statistically significant decrease was observed in the 0–6 week interval in the third and fourth groups (p = 0.002, p <0.0001, respectively). In the radiological examination, the union scores of the rats with head trauma + femoral fracture were higher than the isolated femoral fractures at 3 weeks and 6 weeks. In histomorphometric examination, no statistically significant difference was found between head trauma + femur fracture group and isolated femur fracture group. In addition, there was no correlation between the groups in the correlation studies between radiological findings, histomorphmetric findings and PCR findings. Considering that each molecule involved in fracture healing processes has a time interval and concentration; We concluded that the expression levels of β-catenin can be repeated in smaller time periods including the early stages of fracture healing

The effect of head injury on systemic physiology, including bone healing is still a topic of vivid discussion. We aimed to investigate whether in patients with long bone fractures the presence of head injury is associated with excessive callus formation. Data on patients with head injury and femoral diaphyseal fracture admitted to our trauma unit between 1997- 2002 were collected and analysed. Patients with factors that could influence bone healing such as smoking, NSAIDs and hormonal disorders were excluded. The severity of head injury was quantified using GCS, AIS and CT scan reports. Patients matched for age, sex and ISS with femoral shaft fractures and no head injury formed the control group of the study. All the fractures were stabilised with reamed femoral nail. The quantification of fracture healing response was estimated by taking the radiological ratio of the largest diameter of callus formed into two planes and the adjacent normal diameter of femoral canal. The minimum follow-up of the patients was 12 months. In total 42 patients were studied, 17 with head injury and femoral fracture and 25 with an isolated femoral fracture, (control group). Both groups were comparable in terms of age, sex, ISS. The difference between the mean callus to diaphyseal ratio was statistically significant for both the AP and Lateral projections (AP – mean difference 0.462, 95% CI 0.312 to 0.602, p<0.0001, LAT – mean difference 0.289, 95% CI 0.142 to 0.436, p<0.001) with the head injured patients having more florid callus compared to the control group. This study supports the view that head injury leads to exuberant callus formation in patients with long bone fractures. The mechanisms of this response could be both central and local. Research is ongoing to elucidate the pathways involved in this biological phenomenon

There is evidence that fractures heal more rapidly in patients with head injury. We measured the circulating level of interleukin-6 (IL-6) and its soluble receptor (sIL-6R) and soluble glycoprotein 130 (sgp130) in serum from patients who had sustained a head injury with and without fracture and compared these with levels found in control subjects. Within 12 hours of injury the serum level of IL-6 was significantly higher in patients with head injury and fracture compared with the control group. Levels of IL-6 were also significantly higher in patients with head injury and fracture compared with fracture only. While there was no significant difference in circulating levels of sIL-6R in the initial samples they were increased one week after surgery in patients with head injury and fracture and with head injury only. In addition, reduced levels of sgp130 in patients with head injury with and without fracture indicated a possible reduction of the inhibitory effect of this protein on the activity of IL-6. Our study suggests that IL-6 may be involved in altered healing of a fracture after head injury

Using a simple method of quantifying fracture healing, 53 patients who had limb fractures and also severe head injuries were studied; they were compared with 30 patients who had limb fractures but no head injury. Those with head injuries had a greater healing response and united more rapidly. Radiological and histological analysis revealed that the terms "myositis ossificans" and "heterotopic bone" may be more appropriate than "fracture callus" to describe the healing response in these patients

Objectives The objective of this study was to investigate accelerated bone healing in patients with femoral shaft fractures. Methods Data on patients with diaphyseal femoral fractures admitted to our trauma unit between 1997 and 2002 was collected and analysed. Patients were categorised into three groups by the presence or absence of head injury, and the reamed or undreamed nailing technique used. Severity of head injury was quantified using abbreviated injury score (AIS) and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). Time to bony union was assessed from serial of x-rays and clinical examination. Patients were followed to discharge in outpatient clinics until bony union. Results Group 1 ( Patients with head injury). In total 17 patients (14 male, 3 female). mean age 29.4(14–53). open fractures 2. Mean AIS 3.2 (2–5). Fracture treatment was reamed femoral nail. Bony union 10.5(6–22)weeks. Group 2 ( Patients without head injury). Intotal 25 patients(19 male, 6 female). Mean age 32(16–81). Open fractures 2. Fracture treatment was reamed femoral nail. Bony union 20.5(14–32)weeks. Group 3 ( Patients without head injury). In total 24 patients(18 male, 6 female). Mean age 47(17–83). Open fractures 2. Fracture treatment was unreamed femoral nail. Bony union 26.9 (21–32) weeks. Conclusion This study supports rapid bone union in the presence of head injury. Further research is indicated to provide a definate answer, specially mesenchymal cell and their control pathways which could allow further development of their potential therapeutic uses

Callus formation and the rate of union of nailed fractures of the femur has been determined in 22 patients with associated head injuries and compared with that in a group of patients with similarly treated fractures but without head injuries. The comparison confirms the widely held view that, in patients with head injuries, fractures frequently heal with excessive callus and at a faster rate than normal

The outcome of various types of treatment for femoral fracture in children with head injury was studied retrospectively in 51 patients with 56 fractures. Of these, 36 patients (71 per cent) were in deep coma and scored 5 to 7 on the Glasgow scale. Forty-three children (84 per cent) were eventually able to walk freely. Open reduction and internal fixation proved an attractive solution for femoral fractures in children with head injury who could tolerate general anaesthesia: intramedullary nailing was safe and gave satisfactory results in 16 fractures but infection complicated three of the five fractures which were plated

Aim: To assess the implications of implementation of the NICE Guidelines for indication for CT scan in head injury patients. Methods and Materials: A retrospective audit of the patients attending our district general hospital with head injuries over a period of one year from October 2004 till Sept 2005. A total of 3150 patients attending the A & E during the study period were diagnosed to have head injuries. The study involved review of the case notes and radiology results of the 135 patients requiring inpatient treatment for head injury. During this tenure the CT scan was requested depending of the clinical judgement of the attending physician. Results: Rigid compliance with the NICE Guidelines during the study tenure would have entailed an additional workload of 36 patients requiring a CT scan, of which 28 patients justified the scan during out of hours period. One elderly patient with a fatal intracerebral bleed was found to have justified an early CT scan on the criteria of more than one vomiting episode and a history of unconsiousness. Discussion: The NICE Guidelines were found to be implemented in most cases admitted during working hours. A reluctance to perform CT scan was encountered during out of hours. A strict compliance with the guidelines would entail on average one additional CT scan every fortnight during the ‘out of hours’ period. Implementation of NICE Guidelines was found to tighten the net (justify CT scan) in order not to miss subtle early signs of potentially fatal head injuries

In February 2004, our institute began to perform routine cervical CT scans in addition to head CT examinations on patients with blunt head trauma who had received high energy injuries. We present the findings of 108 patients who underwent a routine cervical CT within the last year and the usefulness of routine cervical CT examinations is discussed. The present report is, to our knowledge, the only prospective study to examine the utility of routine cervical CT examinations. Among the patients admitted to the emergency room of our institute after receiving high energy injuries, 108 patients had blunt head trauma and underwent a routine cervical CT examination in addition to the head CT examination specified by our original protocol for cervical clearance. The mechanism of injury and the presence of cervical bone lesions were noted in each case. 76 males and 32 females ranging in age from 13 to 77 years (average, 41.0 years) were included in the study. Among these 108 cases, cervical fractures or subluxation were visible in 5 cases on plain films. Although no fractures were seen on the plain films taken in the remaining 103 cases, the additional cervical CT examinations demonstrated 14 cervical fractures in 13 (12.6%) of these cases. For patients with blunt head trauma, a cervical CT examination is not usually performed if no evidence of a cervical fracture is found on plain films and no neurological deficits are present. Nevertheless, the present findings suggest that many cervical fractures may have been missed on plain films in the past, and the routine inclusion of a cervical CT examination in addition to a head CT examination might be appropriate in the evaluation of patients with blunt head trauma who have been involved in a high energy injury

There is evidence to suggest that fractures heal more rapidly in patients with a head injury as a result of systemic factors released from the site of this injury. We have measured the circulating level of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and IGF binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3) in serum because of their known involvement in the stimulation of the activity of osteoblasts and the healing of fractures. The serum level of IGF-1 was significantly lower in patients with both head injury and fracture and fracture only compared with that in healthy volunteers (p < 0.01 and p < 0.02, respectively). The level of IGFBP-3 was also significantly lower in patients with both head injury and fracture (p < 0.01). Our findings showed, however, that the level of IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 varied from week to week in both the patients and healthy control subjects. These results indicate that the levels of circulating IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 are unlikely to be responsible for the altered healing of fractures seen in conjunction with head injury

In patients with traumatic brain injury and fractures of long bones, it is often clinically observed that the rate of bone healing and extent of callus formation are increased. However, the evidence has been unconvincing and an association between such an injury and enhanced fracture healing remains unclear. We performed a retrospective cohort study of 74 young adult patients with a mean age of 24.2 years (16 to 40) who sustained a femoral shaft fracture (AO/OTA type 32A or 32B) with or without a brain injury. All the fractures were treated with closed intramedullary nailing. The main outcome measures included the time required for bridging callus formation (BCF) and the mean callus thickness (MCT) at the final follow-up. Comparative analyses were made between the 20 patients with a brain injury and the 54 without brain injury. Subgroup comparisons were performed among the patients with a brain injury in terms of the severity of head injury, the types of intracranial haemorrhage and gender. Patients with a brain injury had an earlier appearance of BCF (p < 0.001) and a greater final MCT value (p < 0.001) than those without. There were no significant differences with respect to the time required for BCF and final MCT values in terms of the severity of head injury (p = 0.521 and p = 0.153, respectively), the types of intracranial haemorrhage (p = 0.308 and p = 0.189, respectively) and gender (p = 0.383 and p = 0.662, respectively). These results confirm that an injury to the brain may be associated with accelerated fracture healing and enhanced callus formation. However, the severity of the injury to the brain, the type of intracranial haemorrhage and gender were not statistically significant factors in predicting the rate of bone healing and extent of final callus formation

1. Some of the problems of treatment of a patient with a head injury and a fractured femur are mentioned. 2. The methods of treatment and results obtained in fifty-nine such patients from the Oxford Accident Service are described

Objective: Prior to the appointment of a dedicated paediatric orthopaedic consultant at a tertiary referral centre (Feb 1999) the treatment of long bone fractures in paediatric patients with associated head injuries was predominately conservative. Current practice is now for early surgical stabilisation wherever possible. The aim of the study was to assess whether this change in clinical practice had resulted in any alteration in outcome. Design: A prospective analysis of patients admitted to the paediatric intensive care unit between Feb 1996 and Jan 2002. Setting: Leeds General Infirmary. Main outcome measures: Duration of ICU admission and time to independent walking was assessed. Results: A total of 37 patients were included in the study.17 patients were treated conservatively and 19 surgically .A reduction of approximately 30% was observed in ICU stay and time to independent walking was observed in those patients that underwent early surgical stabilisation. Conclusions: Early surgical stabilisation of long bone fractures in head injured children allows quicker rehabilitation

Aims. Fracture of the odontoid process (OP) in the elderly is associated with mortality rates similar to those of hip fracture. The aim of this study was to identify variables that predict mortality in patients with a fracture of the OP, and to assess whether established hip fracture scoring systems such as the Nottingham Hip Fracture Score (NHFS) or Sernbo Score might also be used as predictors of mortality in these patients. Patients and Methods. We conducted a retrospective review of patients aged 65 and over with an acute fracture of the OP from two hospitals. Data collected included demographics, medical history, residence, mobility status, admission blood tests, abbreviated mental test score, presence of other injuries, and head injury. All patients were treated in a semi-rigid cervical orthosis. Univariate and multivariate analysis were undertaken to identify predictors of mortality at 30 days and one year. A total of 82 patients were identified. There were 32 men and 50 women with a mean age of 83.7 years (67 to 100). Results. Overall mortality was 14.6% at 30 days and 34.1% at one year. Univariate analysis revealed head injury and the NHFS to be significant predictors of mortality at 30 days and one year. Multivariate analysis showed that head injury is an independent predictor of mortality at 30 days and at one year. The NHFS was an independent predictor of mortality at one year. The presence of other spinal injuries was an independent predictor at 30 days. Following survival analysis, an NHFS score greater than 5 stratified patients into a significantly higher risk group at both 30 days and one year. Conclusion. The NHFS may be used to identify high-risk patients with a fracture of the OP. Head injury increases the risk of mortality in patients with a fracture of the OP. This may help to guide multidisciplinary management and to inform patients. This paper provides evidence to suggest that frailty rather than age alone may be important as a predictor of mortality in elderly patients with a fracture of the odontoid process. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:253–259

To evaluate the functional outcome of open humerus diaphyseal fractures treated with the Three-stitch technique of antegrade humerus nailing. This is a retrospective study conducted at the Department of Orthopaedics in D. Y. Patil University, School of Medicine, Navi Mumbai, India. The study included 25 patients who were operated on from January 2019 to April 2021 and follow-ups done till May 2022. Inclusion criteria were adult patients with open humerus diaphyseal fractures (Gustilo-Anderson Classification). All patients with closed fractures, skeletally immature patients, and patients with associated head injury were excluded from the study. All patients were operated on with a minimally invasive Three-stitch technique for antegrade humerus nailing. All patients were evaluated based on DASH score. Out of the 25 patients included in the study, all patients showed complete union. The mean age of the patients was 40.4 years (range 23–66 years). The average period for consolidation of fracture was 10.56 weeks (range 8–14 weeks). The DASH score ranged from 0 to 15.8 with an average score of 2.96. Five patients reported complications with three patients of post-operative infection and delayed wound healing and two patients with screw loosening. All complications were resolved with proper wound care and the complete union was noted. None of the patients had an iatrogenic neurovascular injury. Three-stitch antegrade nailing technique is a novel method to treat diaphyseal humerus fractures and provides excellent results. It has various advantages such as minimal invasiveness, minimal injury to the rotator cuff, fewer infection rates, minimal iatrogenic injuries, and good functional outcomes. Therefore, this treatment modality can be effectively used for open humerus diaphyseal fractures

Objective: To investigate the incidence, treatment and outcome of spinal injuries in paediatric patients with head injuries admitted ventilated to the paediatric ICU. Design: Retrospective review of all head injury patients admitted ventilated to Birmingham Children’s Hospital from September 1995 to March 2001. Outcome Measures: Severe head injury is defined as an initial GCS of 8 or less; moderate head injury as GCS between 9 – 12 and minor head injury – GCS above 12. Spine injuries detected on plain trauma radiographs and/or CT. Outcome is described by Glasgow Outcome Scale and Frankel grade. Subjects: Two hundred and two consecutive patients were admitted during period: 141 (70%) patients had severe head injury; 44 (22%) patients had moderate head injury; 17 (8%) had minor head injuries. There were 131 males (65%) and 49 females (35%). Age ranged from nine months to sixteen years (mean eight years). The head injuries were: 35 extradural haematoma, 47 acute subdural haematoma, 41 contusions and 79 diffuse axonal injury (DAI). Results: All 202 patients had cervical radiographs done. Forty-eight patients (24%) had further cervical spine CT mainly for inadequate cervical radiographs. Seven patients (3.5%) had CT of the thoracic or lumbar spine. Nineteen patients (9.5%) had MRI of the spine performed. In total, eight of the 202 (4%) patients had spinal injuries (aged two to ten years): 6/8 (75%) were cervical and 2/8 (25%) thoracic and lumbar spine. They were: C3 lamina fracture, C2/3 subluxation, C1/2 sub-luxation, C2 fracture with C6/7 dislocation and cord transection, C6/7 dislocation with cord transection, distraction of atlanto-axial junction, T12 crush fracture and L3/4 fracture dislocation. The cause was road traffic accidents (n=5) and falls from windows (n=3). All had the spinal injury diagnosed on radiographs with no false negative radiographs. All were treated conservatively: one halo vest, one thoracolumbar corset and five hard collars. There were three deaths due to the head injury (C6/7 dislocation with cord transection, L3/4 fracture dislocation and distraction of atlanto-axial junction) at day one, day five and day ten of injury respectively, one patient (C2 fracture) remained quadraplegic (Frankel A), four patients (C3 lamina fracture, C2/3 subluxation, C1/2 subluxation, T12 crush fracture) had good outcomes (Frankel D). Four patients had a GOS of 5 and one patient had GOS of 3 at six months. Conclusion: The incidence of spinal injuries especially cervical injuries was higher than expected, probably reflecting the severity of the injury in this group of patients. Plain cervical and thoracolumbar radiographs detected all patients with spinal injuries suggesting that this investigation alone is sensitive enough for this purpose. Non-operative treatment resulted in good outcome for most of the patients

Background: Bacterial translocation is defined as a phenomenon in which live bacteria cross the intestinal barrier and spread the other systemic organs after various type of traumatic insults such as hemorrhagic shock, burn, malnutrition and abdominal trauma. It has also been shown that multiple fractures of long bones associated with head injury promote bacterial translocation. Aim: To determine whether early internal fixation of long bone fractures helps to prevent bacterial translocation. Materials and methods: Thirty-seven male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups. 1) anesthesia only (control group, n=12); 2) anesthesia + tibia fracture + femur fracture + moderate head trauma (trauma group, n=14), and 3) anesthesia + fixation of both tibia and femur fractures + moderate head trauma (fixation group, n=11). Head injury was created by using Marmarou’s impaction-acceleration model and fractures were created by using a blunt guillotine. After 24 hours, mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, spleen and systemic blood samples were quantitatively cultured to detect bacterial translocation. Finally, ileum was cultured to determine the indigenous intestinal flora. Results: The most commonly translocating bacteria were enterococci, E.coli, and group D streptococci. The incidence of bacterial translocation was lower in fixation group (2/11) than the trauma group (10/14) (Fishers exact test, p=0.025). No statistical difference was detected between the control and the fixation group. The number of organs containing viable bacteria was significantly lower in the control and fixation groups than the trauma group (Mann Whitney U test, p=0.002). Conclusion: Multiple organ failure which is the most severe complication after trauma has a mortality rate of 50–70%. It is believed that MOF results from sepsis from organisms in the intestinal flora; a process termed bacterial translocation. Our data revealed that in case of multiple long bone fractures combined with moderate head injury, systemic translocation of the gut bacteria may be prevented by early internal fixation of the bones

Unstable chest wall injuries have high rates of mortality and morbidity. These injuries can lead to respiratory dysfunction, and are associated with high rates of pneumonia, sepsis, prolonged ICU stays, and increased health care costs. Numerous studies have demonstrated improved outcomes with surgical fixation compared to non-operative treatment. However, an adequately powered multi-centre randomized controlled study using modern fixation techniques has been lacking. We present a multi-centred, prospective, randomized controlled trial comparing surgical fixation of acute, unstable chest wall injuries with the current standard of non-operative management. Patients aged 16–85 with a flail chest (3 or more consecutive, segmental, displaced rib fractures), or severe deformity of the chest wall, were recruited from multiple trauma centers across North America. Exclusion criteria included: severe pulmonary contusion, severe head trauma, randomization>72 hours from injury, inability to perform surgical fixation within 96 hours from injury (in those randomized to surgery), fractures of the floating ribs, or fractures adjacent to the spine not amendable to surgical fixation. Patients were seen in follow-up for one year. The primary outcome was days free from mechanical ventilation in the first 28 days following injury. Secondary outcomes were days in ICU, rates of pneumonia, sepsis, need for tracheostomy, mortality, general health outcomes, pulmonary function testing, and other complications of treatment. A sample size of 206 was required to detect a difference of 2 ventilator-free days between the two groups, using a 2-tailed alpha error of 0.05 and a power of 0.80. A total of 207 patients were recruited from 15 sites across Canada and USA, from 2011–2018. Ninety-nine patients were randomized to non-operative treatment, and 108 were randomized to surgical fixation. Overall, the mean age was 53 years, and 75% of patients were male, with 25% females. The commonest mechanisms of injury were: motor vehicle collisions (34%), falls (20%), motorcycle collisions (14%), and pedestrian injuries (11%). The mean injury severity score (ISS) at admission was 26, and patients had a mean of 10 rib fractures. Eighty-nine percent of patients had pneumothorax, 76% had haemothorax, and 54% had pulmonary contusion. There were no differences between the two groups in terms of demographics. The final results will be available and presented at the COA meeting in Halifax. This is the largest randomized controlled trial to date, comparing surgical fixation to non-operative treatment of unstable chest wall and flail chest injuries. The results of this study will shed light on the best treatment options for patients with such injuries, help understand outcomes, and guide treatment. The final results will be available and presented at the COA meeting in Halifax