Introduction. Several short femoral stems have been introduced in primary total hip arthroplasty, supposedly in order to save proximal bone stock. We intended to analyse primary stability, changes in periprosthetic bone mineral density (BMD), and clinical outcome after insertion of the uncemented collum femoris preserving (CFP)-femoral device. Methods. A prospective cohort study on 30 patients scheduled for receiving the CFP-stem combined with an uncemented cup was carried out. Stem migration was analysed by radiostereometry (RSA). Preoperative total hip BMD and postoperative periprosthetic BMD in Gruen zones 1–7 was investigated by DXA, and the Harris hips score (HHS) was determined. The patients were followed up to 12 months. Results. 2 patients were intraoperatively excluded because their proximal femur was found to be unsuitable for insertion of the studied implant, 1 patient was later revised due to a deep infection. This left 27 patients for final analysis. RSA showed that only very little migration of the implant occurred, with the largest amplitude found in rotation around the y-axis (1.8°, SD 0.6, after 12 mths), representing minimal stem retroversion. DXA after 12 mths demonstrated substantial BMD loss in Gruen zones 7 (−30.8%), 6 (−19.1%) and 2 (−13.3%, p-values for all described changes <0.001 when comparing with baseline BMD determined immediately postoperatively). There was a moderate correlation of low preoperative total hip BMD with a higher amount of bone loss in Gruen zones 2 (Pearson correlation coefficient r = 0.6, p = 0.001), 6 (r = 0.5, p = 0.005) and 7 (r = 0.6, p = 0.003). In contrast, we found no correlation of periprosthetic bone loss in any of the Gruen zones 1–7 with logarithmically transformed maximal total point translation (MTPT) of the stem (p > 0.05 for all regions), neither after 3 nor after 12 mths. The mean HHS increased from 49 (SD 15) preoperatively to 99 (SD 2) after 12 mths. Interpretation. Based on these short-term data, we conclude that i) the studied implant seems to be stable within the first year, ii) substantial loss in periprosthetic BMD - with a predominance in the calcar region - occurs, iii) low preoperative total hip BMD predisposes towards greater loss of periprosthetic BMD after 12 months, iv) postoperative loss in periprosthetic BMD does not correlate with increased stem migration. Clinical results are excellent so far. Continuing follow-up will reveal whether this novel stem remains stable in the medium and long term, and whether the loss in BMD in the regions mentioned above can be recovered with time or whether it continues

Background. Though less common than in females, osteoporosis and osteoporosis-related fractures are not uncommon in males. Our primary objectives were (1) to compare the rates of osteoporosis and osteopenia in adult Brazilian males versus females, 55 years old and over and presenting for bone mineral densitometry (BMD); and (2) to compare males and females as to past osteoporosis screening and management. Methods. From our clinic population, we prospectively surveyed 343 males and 493 females, all at least 55 years of age, who had presented for BMD testing, to identify baseline demographic and clinical characteristics; risk factors for osteoporosis and osteoporotic fractures; overall osteoporosis and 10-year fracture risk; and evidence of prior assessment for and/or management/prevention of osteoporosis. Final osteoporosis risk was determined using the results of BMD testing and the FRAX® tool. Gender comparisons were performed using Pearson 2 analysis for nominal and ordinal variables, Student's t-tests for normally-distributed continuous variables, and Mann-Whitney U tests for non-normally-distributed continuous variables, with all tests 2-tailed and p=0.05 set as the threshold for statistical significance. Binary logistic regression was performed to identify predictors of prior hormonal treatment and BMD. Results. There were no differences in the rates of prior fracture, spinal fracture or long-bone fracture between the sexes, though women were more likely to have osteoporosis of the spine and femur, and had higher estimated risks of future osteoporotic fracture (all p < 0.001). Women also were significantly more likely to have received treatment for their osteoporosis (7.9 vs. 3.1%, p=0.004) and to have had prior BMD testing (80.7 vs. 16.2%, p < 0.001). Ten-year probabilities of hip fracture were 4.8% in males and 5.2% in females; and for a major osteoporotic fracture 5.6% and 24.3%., respectively (both p < 0.001). Age, gender and spinal osteoporosis predicted prior hormonal treatment; but gender was the only predictor of prior BMD, with males 95% less likely to have undergone prior testing than females. Conclusions. Despite similar past fracture rates, and lower but still appreciable future fracture risk, far fewer males than females had received prior screening or management of their osteoporosis

Background. The treatment of femoral neck fracture with internal fixation (IF) is recommended in younger patients and has compared to arthroplasty the advantage of retaining the femoral head. A big problem with osteosynthesis is though failure. Finding predictors for fixation failure is still an ongoing process and osteoporosis has been suggested as a predictor. Aim. To correlate bone mineral density (BMD) in regard to failure of IF in osteosynthesized femoral neck fractures. Material and method. In a health technology assessment study from 2005–2006 at Odense University Hospital, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery and Traumatology, 175 patients with femoral neck fractures accepted DEXA - scanning of the hip and lumbar spine assessing BMD. Final follow-up were 01.08.2010 and 141 patients with IF comprised the final cohort. The cohort consisted of 105 females and 36 males with a mean (CI) age of 77,2 (75,4–79,0). Failure is defined as revision surgery or new fracture. Results. 69 patients had a t-score (total hip) below −2,5 SD as defined for osteoporosis. At 1 year the overall (dislocated) failure rate was 34,5 % (44,7 %), at 2 years 45,4 % (60,0 %) and at end of follow-up 49,6 % (62,8 %). In the cox regression analysis the following factors for failure were significant: dislocated fracture, osteosynthesis placement and prior fracture. There were no associations for total hip BMD, neck BMD, age, sex, quality of fracture reduction, walking disability, independent living, alcohol or smoking. A cox regression sub analysis of the undisplaced fractures showed significant result only for osteosynthesis placement. Conclusion. There is no association between BMD and failure of internal fixation in osteosynthesized femoral neck fractures

Objective. To compare regional body composition, bone mineral density (BMD), and clinical outcome in patients with two different shoulder arthroplasty designs. Materials and Methods. This cross-sectional study included 54 patients with a total of 63 shoulder arthroplasties. There were 18 men and 45 women with a mean age of 68.9 years SD ± 10.5. Mean follow-up time was 39.2 months SD ± 14.4. The patients were divided into three groups according to their history: 22 patients were diagnosed with a proximal humeral fracture and treated with a stemmed hemi arthroplasty, 11 patients were diagnosed with osteoarthritis and treated with a stemmed hemi arthroplasty, and 30 patients were diagnosed with osteoarthritis and treated with a resurfacing arthroplasty. All patients underwent a one-day protocol: Regional Dual X-ray Absorptiometri (DXA) was used to measure BMD of the distal third of humerus and regional body composition of the upper arm. The clinical outcome was measured using Western Ontario Osteoarthritis of the Shoulder index (WOOS) and Constant-Murley score. Results. All three groups were comparable regarding demographic data. Mean BMD of the distal third of humerus was 1.029 g/cm2 SD ± 0.204, mean tissue mass of the upper arm was 2.6 kg SD ± 0.7 and mean muscle mass was 1.4 kg SD ± 0.6. BMD of the distal third of humerus, tissue mass and muscle mass were significantly higher in the group diagnosed with osteoarthritis and treated with a resurfacing arthroplasty compared to the group diagnosed with a proximal humeral fracture and treated with a stemmed hemi arthroplasty, P = 0.03, P = 0.01 and P = 0.02 respectively. Median Constant score was 45.0, range 6–89, median WOOS 633, range 28–1824, and median strength 7.0 units, range 0–25. There were no significant differences between the three groups. Nevertheless, there was a trend towards a higher Constant-Murley score and muscle strength in the group of patients diagnosed with osteoarthritis and treated with a resurfacing arthroplasty compared to the group of patients diagnosed with a proximal humeral fracture and treated with a stemmed hemi arthroplasty. Conclusion. After shoulder arthroplasty BMD of the distal third of humerus and body composition are apparently more dependent on diagnosis rather than arthroplasty design. However, a larger number of patients diagnosed with osteoarthritis and treated with a stemmed hemi arthroplasty are needed to support this

Introduction. Atypical femoral fracture focused on relation of bisphosphonate use, frequently. However, the mechanism of atypical femoral fracture was not yet clarified. Atypical femoral fractures have been kept femoral shaft cortical thickness and BMD, practically. We hypothesized that atypical femoral fractures were associated with impaired bone quality and curvature of femoral shaft. Materials & Methods. We experienced four atypical femoral fractures. One was subtrochanteric and three were shaft fracture. Two cases received bisphosphonate therapy for 3–5 years. BMD, bone metabolic markers, and bone quality markers were evaluated. Histomorphometry and collagen cross-link analysis were performed. Curvature of femoral shaft and 3-D finite element analysis in one incomplete fracture case were assessed. Results. BMD values were either maintained or not severely decreased. Deterioration of bone quality were verified by the results of histomorphometry, collagen cross-link analysis, and bone quality maker. Especially, homocystine values, such as one of bone quality markers, were increased in all cases. All atypical femoral shaft fractures showed outward curvature of femoral bone. In one case of incomplete atypical femoral shaft fracture, stress was concentrated at the fracture region according 3-D finite element analysis. Conclusions. The results of this study suggest that atypical femoral fractures were estimated associated with deterioration of bone quality and curvature of femoral shaft

Introduction. Metal-on-metal hip resurfacing (MOMHR) is a good surgical indication for young active patients. However, it cannot be used in patients with an excessively short femoral head/neck. To address these cases, a new surgical technique has been developed comprising femoral head augmentation using impacted morcellized bone grafts. Methods. 32 osteoarthritis patients who had severe congenital insufficiency of the femoral head/neck were treated with MOMHR combined with femoral head augmentation. Mean patient age was 49 ± 9 years (18–66). The required amount of augmentation was calculated on preoperative X-rays and confirmed during surgery. Using specially designed instrumentation, bone chips produced while reaming the socket and trimming the head were impacted onto the head to achieve the desired reconstruction and lengthening. Finally, the femoral component was cemented. Results. Mean head lengthening was 12 ± 2mm. Mean follow-up was 4.2 years (3–6). Mean preoperative Harris hip score was 58, increasing to 95 at follow-up (p<0.05). Mean leg lengthening was 2.2cm (p=0.001). In all Gruen zones, bone mineral density (BMD) decreased during the first 3 months. At 2 years, in zone 1, mean BMD increased to 96.8% (p=0.009) and to 102.1% in zone 7 (p=0.05). A correlation was found between valgus positioning of the femoral components and increased BMD (p=0.005). To date, only 1 patient has been revised due to socket loosening. Discussion and conclusions. This bone grafting technique expands the use of MOMHR to patients with severe deficiencies of the femoral head, thereby leading to a more anatomical reconstruction with a full recovery of function and BMD of the proximal femur

Introduction. Pedicle screw pullout or loosening is increased in the osteoporotic spine. Recent studies showed a significant increase of pullout forces especially for PMMA-augmentation. With application of conventional viscosity PMMA the risk of cement extravasation is associated. This risk can be reduced by using radiofrequency-responsive, ultrahigh viscosity bone cement. Method. 11 fresh-frozen lumbar vertebral bodies (VB) from 5 cadavers were collected and freed from soft-tissue and ligaments. By DEXA scan (Siemens QDR 2000) 8 VB were identified as severely osteoporotic (BMD 0.8 g/cm3), 3 VB were above this level. Two screws (6×45 mm, WSI-Expertise Inject, Peter Brehm, Weisendorf, Germany) were placed in the pedicles. Through the right screw 3ml of radiofrequency-responsive bone cement (StabiliT® ER2 Bone Cement, DFine, Germany) were injected via hydraulic cement delivery system (StabiliT® Vertebral Augmentation System, DFine, Germany). As control group, left pedicle screws remained uncemented. After potting the whole VB in technical PMMA (Technovit 4004, Heraeus Kulzer, Germany) axial pullout test was performed by a material testing device (Zwick-Roell, Zmart-Pro, Ulm, Germany). Results. The mean BMD of all specimen was 0.771 g/cm3 (min./max. 0.615/1.116, SD ± 0.170). Due to the definition of osteoporosis 8 specimens had a BMD lower than 0.8 g/cm3 (mean 0.677, min./max. 0.615/0,730, SD ±0.045). The non-osteoporotic group consisted of 3 specimens with a mean BMD of 1.020 g/cm3 (min/max 0.928/1.116, SD ±0.094). Overall we observed an increase in the mean axial pullout strength of 284% when using cement augmentated screws (non-cemented 385 N vs. cemented 1029 N, p 0,001). In the osteoporotic group the mean pullout force of the non-cemented screws was 407 N vs. 1022 N for the cemented screws (p 0.001). Similarly the pullout force rose in the non-osteoporotic group from 325 N for the non-cemented screws to 1048 N for the cemented screws p 0,001). All surgical procedures could be performed without technical problems. Conclusion. This cadaver study demonstrates the efficacy and effectiveness of pedicle-screw augmentation with ultra-high viscosity cement. Pullout forces are significantly increased, especially in osteoporotic bone. No complications like clogged in cannulated pedicle-screws or extravasation of bone cement were observed. In daily clinical routine radiation exposure to operator during cement delivery is reduced due to remote-controlled, automated delivery of radiofrequency-responsive bone cement. Furthermore availability of longer time to work with the cement (up to 30 min) is achieved; hectically injection or multiple-cement-mixing is not necessary anymore. The WSI-Expertise cannulated pedicle screws can be inserted and also augmented in a minimal-invasive technique. The PMMA then is injected through an extension adapter. PMMA augmentation of pedicle screws is already well established in spine surgery. With the combination of radiofrequency-responsive, ultra-high viscosity bone cement and cannulated pedicle screws this established procedure could become more controlled and safer for both patient and physician

Aims

To determine if patient ethnicity among patients with a hip fracture influences the type of fracture, surgical care, and outcome.

Introduction. The risk factors for new adjacent vertebral compression fracture (NAVCF) after Vertebroplasty (VP) or Kyphoplasty (KP) for osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures (VCFs) were investigated. Materials and methods. The authors retrospectively analyzed the incidence of NAVCFs in 135 patients treated with VP or KP for osteoporotic VCFs. Study period was from 2004 to 2008 with minimum follow-up of 2 years. Possible risk factors were documented: age, gender, body mass index, bone mineral density (BMD), co-morbidities, location of treated vertebra, treatment modality and amount of bone cement injected. Anterior-posterior vertebral body height ratio, intra-discal cement leakage into the disc space and pattern of cement distribution of the initial VCF and adjacent vertebral bodies were assessed on lateral thoracolumbar radiographs by 2 independent assessors. Results. 21 patients (15.6%) had subsequent symptomatic NAVCFs with a median time to new fracture was of 125 days. There was no difference in incidence of NAVCF between VP and KP groups (P>0.05). Significant differences were found between patients with and without NAVCF in terms of age, BMD, and the proportion of cement leakage into the disc space (P < 0.05). Greater age, intra-discal cement leakage and low BMD were found in patients with NAVCF. Conclusion. The most important risk factors affecting NAVCFs were age, osteoporosis and intra-discal cement leakage

Aims

The incidence of atypical femoral fractures (AFFs) continues to increase. However, there are currently few long-term studies on the complications of AFFs and factors affecting them. Therefore, we attempted to investigate the outcomes, complications, and risk factors for complication through mid-term follow-up of more than three years.

Introduction. A review of the literature showed a discrepancy between biomechanical and clinical studies on fracture fixation failure in patients with poor bone quality. The objective of the present study is to assess the influence of local bone status on complications after surgical treatment of proximal humerus fractures. Methods. A prospective cohort study was initiated in 2007. The inclusion criteria were closed displaced fractures of the proximal humerus, primary fracture treatment with a Philos plate, patients aged 50 to 90, normal pre-trauma function of both shoulders in accordance to age, and monotrauma. There was active follow-up for one year with radiological assessment at clinical centers from four countries. Bone quality at the proximal humerus was determined preoperatively for the contralateral side of the fracture by CT scan, and at the contralateral radius within six weeks post-surgery by DXA. The occurrence of complications was monitored up to one year post-surgery. Independent x-ray evaluation and final classification of all complications will be performed at the end by a study review board using anonymous data and x-rays. Preliminary Results. 157 patients, 127 female (79%) met the inclusion criteria. Their mean age at time of surgery is 69 (range 50–89). 119 patients (100%) attended the 1-year follow-up assessment, 64 (96%) the one at 3 months, and 148 (99%) the 6 week follow-up examination. According to the WHO criteria, 107 patients (71%) suffered from either osteopenia or osteoporosis, while 43 patients (29%) had a normal T-score. The overall reported complication rate was 39%. However, the number of intraoperative complications was 0.6%, bone/fracture complications 19.1%, implant complications 15.3%, and general complications 14.6%. Discussion. Fixation of proximal humerus fractures with Philos plates in elderly people with osteoporotic bone is associated with a high rate of fixation failure. Final results will be reported after x-rays, local BMD (CT- based) and complications assessment have been conducted

BACKGROUND CONTEXT. Osteoporosis causes decreased bone mineral density, which predisposes to fragility fractures. Low-energy vertebral compression fractures are the most common type of osteoporotic fragility fracture. Prior studies have shown that only one-quarter of patients diagnosed with an osteoporotic fracture are referred or treated for osteoporosis. PURPOSE. To identify the rate of recurrent fractures after vertebroplasty and after the conservative treatment for patients aged 50 years and older who sustained low impact vertebral compressions fractures over a 6-month period. STUDY DESIGNED/SETTING. Prospective study. PATIENT SAMPLE. The sample included patients 50 years or older who had a low-energy vertebral compression fracture. The patients were divided into two groups: first group (n=24) - patients teated by vertebroplasty and the second group (n=34) - patients treated conservatory. There was no significant difference among the groups in terms of the vertebral levels or BMD. METHODS. Patients records were reviewed for fracture recurrence and in the same time we examined medical records for osteoporotic medication prescriptions, refferals to endocrinology and to dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans. RESULTS. Confounding factors of age at the procedure, sex and chronic steroids use were considered and found to have no statistically significant difference between the two groups and between those with fracture recurrence and those without fracture recurrence. Four vertebroplasty procedure resulted in a recurrent fracture within the first 6 months. In the patient group treated conservatory 8 patients sustained recurrent fractures. Patients with recurrent vertebral fracture didn't receive active osteoporosis treatment. Within 6 months after the fracture only 21% of patients were receiving active osteoporosis treatment. CONCLUSIONS. The incidence of recurrent fracture after vertebroplasty or after conservative treatment is substantial but have no statistically significant difference between the two groups. We consider that the recurrence rate is not related with the surgical intervention but is the result of natural history of the patient's osteoporosis because the patients do not understand the importance of initiating active therapeutic intervention for osteoporosis recommended by physicians

Fractures of the distal forearm are widely regarded as the result of “fragility”. We have examined the extent to which patients with Colles’ fractures have osteopenia. We measured the bone mineral density (BMD) in the contralateral radius of 235 women presenting with Colles’ fractures over a period of two years. While women of all ages had low values for ultra-distal BMD, the values, in age-matched terms, were particularly low among premenopausal women aged less than 45 years. This result was not due to the presence of women with an early menopause. This large survey confirms and extends the findings from earlier small studies. We consider that it is particularly important to investigate young patients with fractures of the distal forearm to identify those with osteoporosis, to seek an underlying cause and to consider treatment

Aims

In order to determine whether and for whom serial radiological evaluation is necessary in one-part proximal humerus fractures, we set out to describe the clinical history and predictors of secondary displacement in patients sustaining these injuries.

Aims

The aim of this study was to evaluate the clinical and radiological outcomes of locking plate fixation, with and without an associated fibular strut allograft, for the treatment of displaced proximal humeral fractures in elderly osteoporotic patients.

Aims

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a posterior malleolar fragment (PMF), with < 25% ankle joint surface, on pressure distribution and joint-stability. There is still little scientific evidence available to advise on the size of PMF, which is essential to provide treatment. To date, studies show inconsistent results and recommendations for surgical treatment date from 1940.

It is becoming increasingly common for a patient to have ipsilateral hip and knee replacements. The inter-prosthetic (IP) distance, the distance between the tips of hip and knee prostheses, has been thought to be associated with an increased risk of IP fracture. Small gap distances are generally assumed to act as stress risers, although there is no real biomechanical evidence to support this.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of IP distance, cortical thickness and bone mineral density on the likelihood of an IP femoral fracture.

A total of 18 human femur specimens were randomised into three groups by bone density and cortical thickness. For each group, a defined IP distance of 35 mm, 80 mm or 160 mm was created by choosing the appropriate lengths of component. The maximum fracture strength was determined using a four-point bending test.

The fracture force of all three groups was similar (p = 0.498). There was a highly significant correlation between the cortical area and the fracture strength (r = 0.804, p <  0.001), whereas bone density showed no influence.

This study suggests that the IP distance has little influence on fracture strength in IP femoral fractures: the thickness of the cortex seems to be the decisive factor.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1378–84.

This multicentre prospective clinical trial aimed to determine whether early administration of alendronate (ALN) delays fracture healing after surgical treatment of fractures of the distal radius. The study population comprised 80 patients (four men and 76 women) with a mean age of 70 years (52 to 86) with acute fragility fractures of the distal radius requiring open reduction and internal fixation with a volar locking plate and screws. Two groups of 40 patients each were randomly allocated either to receive once weekly oral ALN administration (35 mg) within a few days after surgery and continued for six months, or oral ALN administration delayed until four months after surgery. Postero-anterior and lateral radiographs of the affected wrist were taken monthly for six months after surgery. No differences between groups was observed with regard to gender (p = 1.0), age (p = 0.916), fracture classification (p = 0.274) or bone mineral density measured at the spine (p = 0.714). The radiographs were assessed by three independent assessors. There were no significant differences in the mean time to complete cortical bridging observed between the ALN group (3.5 months (se 0.16)) and the no-ALN group (3.1 months (se 0.15)) (p = 0.068). All the fractures healed in the both groups by the last follow-up. Improvement of the Quick-Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH) score, grip strength, wrist range of movement, and tenderness over the fracture site did not differ between the groups over the six-month period. Based on our results, early administration of ALN after surgery for distal radius fracture did not appear to delay fracture healing times either radiologically or clinically.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1544–50.

Our aim in this pilot study was to evaluate the fixation of, the bone remodelling around, and the clinical outcome after surgery of a new, uncemented, fully hydroxyapatite-coated, collared and tapered femoral component, designed specifically for elderly patients with a fracture of the femoral neck.

We enrolled 50 patients, of at least 70 years of age, with an acute displaced fracture of the femoral neck in this prospective single-series study. They received a total hip replacement using the new component and were followed up regularly for two years.

Fixation was evaluated by radiostereometric analysis and bone remodelling by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Hip function and the health-related quality of life were assessed using the Harris hip score and the EuroQol-5D.

Up to six weeks post-operatively there was a mean subsidence of 0.2 mm (−2.1 to +0.5) and a retroversion of a mean of 1.2° (−8.2° to +1.5°). No component migrated after three months. The patients had a continuous loss of peri-prosthetic bone which amounted to a mean of 16% (−49% to +10%) at two years. The mean Harris hip score was 82 (51 to 100) after two years.

The two-year results from this pilot study indicate that this new, uncemented femoral component can be used for elderly patients with osteoporotic fractures of the femoral neck.

Low-energy fractures of the proximal humerus indicate osteoporosis and it is important to direct treatment to this group of patients who are at high risk of further fracture. Data were prospectively collected from 79 patients (11 men, 68 women) with a mean age of 69 years (55 to 86) with fractures of the proximal humerus in order to determine if current guidelines on the measurement of the bone mineral density at the hip and lumbar spine were adequate to stratify the risk and to guide the treatment of osteoporosis. Bone mineral density measurements were made by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry at the proximal femur, lumbar spine (L2-4) and contralateral distal radius, and the T-scores were generated for comparison. Data were also collected on the use of steroids, smoking, the use of alcohol, hand dominance and comorbidity.

The mean T-score for the distal radius was −2.97 (sd 1.56) compared with −1.61 (sd 1.62) for the lumbar spine and −1.78 (sd 1.33) for the femur. There was a significant difference between the mean lumbar and radial T scores (1.36 (1.03 to 1.68); p < 0.001) and between the mean femoral and radial T-scores (1.18 (0.92 to 1.44); p < 0.001). The inclusion of all three sites in the determination of the T-score increased the sensitivity to 66% compared with that of 46% when only the proximal femur and lumbar spine were used. This difference between measurements in the upper limb compared with the axial skeleton and lower limb suggests that basing risk assessment and treatment on only the bone mineral density taken at the hip or lumbar spine may misrepresent the extent of osteoporosis in the upper limb and the subsequent risk of fracture at this site.

The assessment of osteoporosis must include measurement of the bone mineral density at the distal radius to avoid underestimation of osteoporosis in the upper limb.