The Swansea Morriston Achilles Rupture Treatment (SMART) programme was introduced in 2008. This paper summarises the outcome of this programme. Patients with a rupture of the Achilles tendon treated in our unit follow a comprehensive management protocol that includes a dedicated Achilles clinic, ultrasound examination, the use of functional orthoses, early weight-bearing, an accelerated exercise regime and guidelines for return to work and sport. The choice of conservative or surgical treatment was based on ultrasound findings. . The rate of re-rupture, the outcome using the Achilles Tendon Total Rupture Score (ATRS) and the Achilles Tendon Repair Score, (AS), and the complications were recorded. An elementary cost analysis was also performed. . Between 2008 and 2014 a total of 273 patients presented with an acute rupture 211 of whom were managed conservatively and 62 had surgical repair. There were three re-ruptures (1.1%). There were 215 men and 58 women with a mean age of 46.5 years (20 to 86). Functional outcome was satisfactory. Mean ATRS and AS at four months was 53.0 (. sd . 14), 64.9 (. sd. 15) (n = 135), six months 67.8 (. sd. 16), 73.8 (. sd. 15) (n = 103) and nine months (72.4; . sd. 14) 72.3 (. sd. 13) (n = 43). The programme realised estimated cost savings exceeding £91 000 per annum. The SMART programme resulted in a low rate of re-rupture, a satisfactory outcome, a reduced rate of surgical intervention and a reduction in healthcare costs. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:510–15

We hypothesised that a minimally invasive peroneus brevis tendon transfer would be effective for the management of a chronic rupture of the Achilles tendon. In 17 patients (three women, 14 men) who underwent minimally invasive transfer and tenodesis of the peroneus brevis to the calcaneum, at a mean follow-up of 4.6 years (2 to 7) the modified Achilles tendon total rupture score (ATRS) was recorded and the maximum circumference of the calf of the operated and contralateral limbs was measured. The strength of isometric plantar flexion of the gastrocsoleus complex and of eversion of the ankle were measured bilaterally. Functional outcomes were classified according to the four-point Boyden scale. . At the latest review, the mean maximum circumference of the calf of the operated limb was not significantly different from the pre-operative mean value, (41.4 cm, 32 to 50 vs 40.6 cm, 33 to 46; p = 0.45), and not significantly less than that of the contralateral limb (43.1 cm, 35 to 52; p = 0.16). The mean peak torque (244.6 N, 125 to 367) and the strength of eversion of the operated ankle (149.1 N, 65 to 240) were significantly lower (p < 0.01) than those of the contralateral limb (mean peak torque 289, 145 to 419; strength of eversion: 175.2, 71 to 280). The mean ATRS significantly improved from 58 pre-operatively (35 to 68) to 91 (75 to 97; 95% confidence interval 85.3 to 93.2) at the time of final review. Of 13 patients who practised sport at the time of injury, ten still undertook recreational activities. . This procedure may be safely performed, is minimally invasive, and allows most patients to return to pre-injury sport and daily activities. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:353–7

Aims. Functional rehabilitation has become an increasingly popular treatment for Achilles tendon rupture (ATR), providing comparably low re-rupture rates to surgery, while avoiding risks of surgical complications. Limited evidence exists on whether gap size should affect patient selection for this treatment option. The aim of this study was to assess if size of gap between ruptured tendon ends affects patient-reported outcome following ATR treated with functional rehabilitation. Methods. Analysis of prospectively collected data on all 131 patients diagnosed with ATR at Royal Berkshire Hospital, UK, from August 2016 to January 2019 and managed non-operatively was performed. Diagnosis was confirmed on all patients by dynamic ultrasound scanning and gap size measured with ankle in full plantarflexion. Functional rehabilitation using an established protocol was the preferred treatment. All non-operatively treated patients with completed Achilles Tendon Rupture Scores (ATRS) at a minimum of 12 months following injury were included. Results. In all, 82 patients with completed ATRS were included in the analysis. Their mean age was 51 years (standard deviation (SD) 14). The mean ATRS was 76 (SD 19) at a mean follow-up of 20 months (SD 11) following injury. Gap inversely affected ATRS with a Pearson’s correlation of -0.30 (p = 0.008). Mean ATRS was lower with gaps > 5 mm compared with ≤ 5 mm (73 (SD 21) vs 82 (SD 16); p = 0.031). Mean ATRS was lowest (70 (SD 23)) with gaps > 10 mm, with significant differences in perceived strength and pain. The overall re-rupture rate was two out of 131 (1.5%). Conclusion. Increasing gap size predicts lower patient-reported outcome, as measured by ATRS. Tendon gap > 5 mm may be a useful predictor in physically demanding individuals, and tendon gap > 10 mm for those with low physical demand. Further studies that control for gap size when comparing non-operative and operative treatment are required to assess if these patients may benefit from surgery, particularly when balanced against the surgical risks. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(11):1535–1541

Percutaneous repair of the ruptured tendo Achillis has a low rate of failure and negligible complications with the wound, but the sural nerve may be damaged. We describe a new technique which minimises the risk of injury to this nerve. The repair is carried out using three midline stab incisions over the posterior aspect of the tendon. A No. 1 nylon suture on a 90 mm cutting needle approximates the tendon with two box stitches. The procedure can be carried out under local anaesthesia. We reviewed 27 patients who had a percutaneous repair at a median interval of 35 months after the injury. They returned to work at four weeks and to sport at 16. One developed a minor wound infection and another complex regional pain syndrome type II. There were no injuries to the sural nerve or late reruptures. This technique is simple to undertake and has a low rate of complications

Aims

To determine whether the findings from a landmark Canadian trial assessing the optimal management of acute rupture of the Achilles tendon influenced the practice patterns of orthopaedic surgeons in Ontario, Canada.

Aims. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a potential complication of foot and ankle surgery. There is a lack of agreement on contributing risk factors and chemical prophylaxis requirements. The primary outcome of this study was to analyze the 90-day incidence of symptomatic VTE and VTE-related mortality in patients undergoing foot and ankle surgery and Achilles tendon (TA) rupture. Secondary aims were to assess the variation in the provision of chemical prophylaxis and risk factors for VTE. Methods. This was a multicentre, prospective national collaborative audit with data collection over nine months for all patients undergoing foot and ankle surgery in an operating theatre or TA rupture treatment, within participating UK hospitals. The association between VTE and thromboprophylaxis was assessed with a univariable logistic regression model. A multivariable logistic regression model was used to identify key predictors for the risk of VTE. Results. A total of 13,569 patients were included from 68 sites. Overall, 11,363 patients were available for analysis: 44.79% were elective (n = 5,090), 42.16% were trauma excluding TA ruptures (n = 4,791), 3.50% were acute diabetic procedures (n = 398), 2.44% were TA ruptures undergoing surgery (n = 277), and 7.10% were TA ruptures treated nonoperatively (n = 807). In total, 11 chemical anticoagulants were recorded, with the most common agent being low-molecular-weight heparin (n = 6,303; 56.79%). A total of 32.71% received no chemical prophylaxis. There were 99 cases of VTE (incidence 0.87% (95% CI 0.71 to 1.06)). VTE-related mortality was 0.03% (95% CI 0.005 to 0.080). Univariable analysis showed that increased age and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) grade had higher odds of VTE, as did having previous cancer, stroke, or history of VTE. On multivariable analysis, the strongest predictors for VTE were the type of foot and ankle procedure and ASA grade. Conclusion. The 90-day incidence of symptomatic VTE and mortality related to VTE is low in foot and ankle surgery and TA management. There was notable variability in the chemical prophylaxis used. The significant risk factors associated with 90-day symptomatic VTE were TA rupture and high ASA grade. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(11):1249–1256

Aims. Although absorbable sutures for the repair of acute Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) have been attracting attention, the rationale for their use remains insufficient. This study prospectively compared the outcomes of absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures for the repair of acute ATR. Methods. A total of 40 patients were randomly assigned to either braided absorbable polyglactin suture or braided nonabsorbable polyethylene terephthalate suture groups. ATR was then repaired using the Krackow suture method. At three and six months after surgery, the isokinetic muscle strength of ankle plantar flexion was measured using a computer-based Cybex dynamometer. At six and 12 months after surgery, patient-reported outcomes were measured using the Achilles tendon Total Rupture Score (ATRS), visual analogue scale for pain (VAS pain), and EuroQoL five-dimension health questionnaire (EQ-5D). Results. Overall, 37 patients completed 12 months of follow-up. No difference was observed between the two groups in terms of isokinetic plantar flexion strength, ATRS, VAS pain, or EQ-5D. No re-rupture was observed in either group. Conclusion. The use of absorbable sutures for the repair of acute ATR was not inferior to that of nonabsorbable sutures. This finding suggests that absorbable sutures can be considered for the repair of acute ATRs. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(8):938–945

Aims. The ideal management of acute syndesmotic injuries in elite athletes is controversial. Among several treatment methods used to stabilize the syndesmosis and facilitate healing of the ligaments, the use of suture tape (InternalBrace) has previously been described. The purpose of this study was to analyze the functional outcome, including American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS) scores, knee-to-wall measurements, and the time to return to play in days, of unstable syndesmotic injuries treated with the use of the InternalBrace in elite athletes. Methods. Data on a consecutive group of elite athletes who underwent isolated reconstruction of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament using the InternalBrace were collected prospectively. Our patient group consisted of 19 elite male athletes with a mean age of 24.5 years (17 to 52). Isolated injuries were seen in 12 patients while associated injuries were found in seven patients (fibular fracture, medial malleolus fracture, anterior talofibular ligament rupture, and posterior malleolus fracture). All patients had a minimum follow-up period of 17 months (mean 27 months (17 to 35)). Results. All patients returned to their pre-injury level of sports activities. One patient developed a delayed union of the medial malleolus. The mean return to play was 62 days (49 to 84) for isolated injuries, while the patients with concomitant injuries returned to play in a mean of 104 days (56 to 196). The AOFAS score returned to 100 postoperatively in all patients. Knee-to-wall measurements were the same as the contralateral side in 18 patients, while one patient lacked 2 cm compared to the contralateral side. Conclusion. This study suggests the use of the InternalBrace in the management of unstable syndesmotic injuries offers an alternative method of stabilization, with good short-term results, including early return to sports in elite athletes. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(1):68–75

Objectives. The incidence of acute Achilles tendon rupture appears to be increasing. The aim of this study was to summarize various therapies for acute Achilles tendon rupture and discuss their relative merits. Methods. A PubMed search about the management of acute Achilles tendon rupture was performed. The search was open for original manuscripts and review papers limited to publication from January 2006 to July 2017. A total of 489 papers were identified initially and finally 323 articles were suitable for this review. Results. The treatments of acute Achilles tendon rupture include operative and nonoperative treatments. Operative treatments mainly consist of open repair, percutaneous repair, mini-open repair, and augmentative repair. Traditional open repair has lower re-rupture rates with higher risks of complications. Percutaneous repair and mini-open repair show similar re-rupture rates but lower overall complication rates when compared with open repair. Percutaneous repair requires vigilance against nerve damage. Functional rehabilitation combining protected weight-bearing and early controlled motion can effectively reduce re-rupture rates with satisfactory outcomes. Biological adjuncts help accelerating tendon healing by adhering rupture ends or releasing highly complex pools of signalling factors. Conclusion. The optimum treatment for complete rupture remains controversial. Both mini-open repair and functional protocols are attractive alternatives, while biotherapy is a potential future development. Cite this article: X. Yang, H. Meng, Q. Quan, J. Peng, S. Lu, A. Wang. Management of acute Achilles tendon ruptures: A review. Bone Joint Res 2018;7:561–569. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.710.BJR-2018-0004.R2

Aims. Flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendon transfer is a well-recognized technique in the treatment of the neglected tendo Achillis (TA) rupture. Patients and Methods. We report a retrospective review of 20/32 patients who had undergone transtendinous FHL transfer between 2003 and 2011 for chronic TA rupture. Their mean age at the time of surgery was 53 years (22 to 83). The mean time from rupture to surgery was seven months (1 to 36). The mean postoperative follow-up was 73 months (29 to 120). Six patients experienced postoperative wound complications. Results. The mean postoperative Achilles tendon Total Rupture Score (ATRS) was 83 (40 to 100) and the mean American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS) score was 94.3 (82 to 100). Tegner scoring showed a mean reduction of one level from the pre-injury level of activity. There was a mean reduction of 24% (4 to 54) in dynamometer-measured strength of ankle plantarflexion, in comparison with the non-operated side. The hallux had a mean of only 40% (2 to 90) strength of plantarflexion in comparison with the contralateral side. Conclusion. We conclude that transtendinous FHL transfer for neglected TA ruptures, with a long harvest to allow reattachment of the triceps surae, provides reliable long-term function and good ankle plantarflexion strength. Despite the loss of strength in hallux plantar flexion, there is little comorbidity from the FHL harvest. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:584–9

Aims. This prospective cohort study aims to determine if the size of the tendon gap following acute rupture of the Achilles tendon shows an association with the functional outcome following non-operative treatment. . Patients and Methods. All patients presenting within two weeks of an acute unilateral rupture of the Achilles tendon between July 2012 and July 2015 were considered for the study. In total, 38 patients (nine female, 29 male, mean age 52 years; 29 to 78) completed the study. Dynamic ultrasound examination was performed to confirm the diagnosis and measure the gap between ruptured tendon ends. Outcome was assessed using dynamometric testing of plantarflexion and the Achilles tendon Total Rupture score (ATRS) six months after the completion of a rehabilitation programme. Results. Patients with a gap ≥ 10 mm with the ankle in the neutral position had significantly greater peak torque deficit than those with gaps < 10 mm (mean 23.3%; 7% to 52% vs 14.3%; 0% to 47%, p = 0.023). However, there was no difference in ATRS between the two groups (mean score 87.2; 74 to 100 vs 87.4; 68 to 97, p = 0.467). There was no significant correlation between gap size and torque deficit (τ = 0.103), suggesting a non-linear relationship. There was also no significant correlation between ATRS and peak torque deficit (τ = -0.305). . Conclusion . This is the first study to identify an association between tendon gap and functional outcome in acute rupture of the Achilles tendon. We have identified 10 mm as a gap size at which deficits in plantarflexion strength become significantly greater, however, the precise relationship between gap size and plantarflexion strength remains unclear. Large, multicentre studies will be needed to clarify this relationship and identify population subgroups in whom deficits in peak torque are reflected in patient-reported outcome measures. . Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:87–93

Aims. The aim was to compare long-term patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) after operative and nonoperative treatment of acute Achilles tendon rupture in the context of a randomized controlled trial. Methods. PROMs including the Short Musculoskeletal Function Assessment (SMFA), Achilles Tendon Total Rupture Score (ATRS), EuroQol five-dimension (EQ-5D), satisfaction, net promoter score and data regarding re-rupture, and venous thromboembolic rates were collected for patients randomized to receive either operative or nonoperative treatment for acute Achilles tendon rupture in a previous study. Of the 80 patients originally randomized, 64 (33 treated surgically, 31 nonoperatively) patients were followed up at a mean of 15.7 years (13.4 to 17.7). Results. There was no statistically significant difference between operatively and nonoperatively treated patients, in SMFA Dysfunction Index (median 1.56 (interquartile range (IQR) 0 to 5.51) vs 1.47 (IQR 0 to 5.15); p = 0.289), SMFA Bother Index (2.08 (IQR 0 to 12.50) vs 0.00 (IQR 0 to 6.25); p = 0.074), ATRS (94 (IQR 86 to 100) vs 95 (IQR 81 to 100); p = 0.313), EQ-5D-5L (1 (IQR 0.75 to 1) vs 1 (IQR 0.84 to 1); p = 0.137) or EQ-5D health today visual analogue score (85 (IQR 72.5 to 95) vs 85 (IQR 8 to 95); p = 0.367). There was no statistically significant difference between operative and nonoperative groups in terms of satisfaction (84% vs 100%; p = 0.119) or willingness to recommend treatment to friends or family (79% vs 87%; p = 0.255). Four nonoperative patients and two in the operative group sustained a re-rupture (p = 0.306). Conclusion. Both patient groups reported good results at long-term follow-up. The findings give no evidence of superior long-term patient reported outcomes (as measured by the SMFA) for surgical treatment over nonoperative treatment. There was no demonstrable difference in other patient reported outcome measures, satisfaction, or re-rupture rates at long-term follow-up. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(7):933–940

Objectives. Inflammation of the retrocalcaneal bursa (RB) is a common clinical problem, particularly in professional athletes. RB inflammation is often treated with corticosteroid injections however a number of reports suggest an increased risk of Achilles tendon (AT) rupture. The aim of this cadaveric study was to describe the anatomical connections of the RB and to investigate whether it is possible for fluid to move from the RB into AT tissue. Methods. A total of 20 fresh-frozen AT specimens were used. In ten specimens, ink was injected into the RB. The remaining ten specimens were split into two groups to be injected with radiological contrast medium into the RB either with or without ultrasonography guidance (USG). Results. In specimens injected with ink, diffusion outside the RB was observed with staining of the anterior portion of the AT. In eight contrast-injected specimens (five USG, three non-USG), a similar localised diffusion pattern was observed, with the contrast identified superiorly and anteriorly. In two contrast-injected specimens (non-USG), the diffusion pattern was more extensive. Conclusion. This study confirmed the existence of connections between the RB and the AT, especially rich in the anteroinferior portion of the tendon, which should be considered a weak zone for substances injected into the RB. We hypothesise that this part of the AT might be most vulnerable to rupture after corticosteroid injections. Cite this article: P. A. Pękala, B. M. Henry, J. R. Pękala, K. Piska, K. A. Tomaszewski. The Achilles tendon and the retrocalcaneal bursa: An anatomical and radiological study. Bone Joint Res 2017;6:446–451. DOI:10.1302/2046-3758.67.BJR-2016-0340.R1

Aims

Achilles tendon re-rupture (ATRR) poses a significant risk of postoperative complication, even after a successful initial surgical repair. This study aimed to identify risk factors associated with Achilles tendon re-rupture following operative fixation.

Aims. The aims of this study were to establish the incidence of acute Achilles tendon rupture (AATR) in a North American population, to select demographic subgroups and to examine trends in the management of this injury in the province of Ontario, Canada. Patients and Methods. Patients ≥ 18 years of age who presented with an AATR to an emergency department in Ontario, Canada between 1 January 2003 and 31 December 2013 were identified using administrative databases. The overall and annual incidence density rate (IDR) of AATR were calculated for all demographic subgroups. The annual rate of surgical repair was also calculated and compared between demographic subgroups. Results. A total of 27 607 patients (median age, 44 years; interquartile range 26 to 62; 66.5% male) sustained an AATR. The annual IDR increased from 18.0 to 29.3 per 100 000 person-years between 2003 and 2013. The mean IDR was highest among men between the ages of 40 and 49 years (46.0/100 000 person-years). The annual rate of surgical repair dropped from 20.1 in 2003 to 9.2 per 100 AATRs in 2013. There was a noticeable decline after 2009. Conclusion. The incidence of AATR is increasing in Ontario, while the annual rate of surgical repair is decreasing. A sharp decline in the rate of surgical repair was noted after 2009. This coincided with the publication of several high-quality RCTs which showed similar outcomes for the ‘functional’ non-operative management and surgical repair. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:78–86

Aims. Patients with an acute Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) take a long time to heal, have a high incidence of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and widely variable functional outcomes. This variation in outcome may be explained by a lack of knowledge of adverse factors, and a subsequent shortage of appropriate interventions. . Patients and Methods. A total of 111 patients (95 men, 16 women; mean age 40.3, standard deviation 8.4) with an acute total ATR were prospectively assessed. At one year post-operatively a uniform outcome score, Achilles Combined Outcome Score (ACOS), was obtained by combining three validated, independent, outcome measures: Achilles tendon Total Rupture Score, heel-rise height test, and limb symmetry heel-rise height. Predictors of ACOS included treatment; gender; age; smoking; body mass index; time to surgery; physical activity level pre- and post-injury; symptoms; quality of life and incidence of DVT. . Results. There were three independent variables that correlated significantly with the dichotomised outcome score (ACOS), while there was no correlation with other factors. An age of less than 40 years old was the strongest independent predictor of a good outcome one year after ATR (odds ratio (OR) 0.20, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.08 to 0.51), followed by female gender (OR) 4.18, 95% CI 1.01 to 17.24). Notably, patients who did not have a DVT while immobilised post-operatively had a better outcome (OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.12 to 0.80). . Conclusion. Over the age of 40 years, male gender and having a DVT while immobilised are independent negative predictors of outcome in patients with an acute ATR. . Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1635–41

Acquired flatfoot deformity after injury is usually due to partial or complete tearing of the tendon of tibialis posterior, with secondary failure of the other structures which maintain the medial longitudinal arch. We describe a patient in whom the rupture of the plantar calcaneonavicular (spring) ligament resulted in a clinical picture similar to that of rupture of the tendon of tibialis posterior. Operative repair of the ligament and transfer of the tendon of flexor digitorum gave an excellent result at four years with the patient returning to full sporting activities

Chronic infections and ulceration around the tendo Achillis are difficult to manage. Split-skin grafts do not survive even on healthy exposed tendon. Refractory cases may require plastic surgical intervention with the use of free flaps. Patients with significant vascular disease are not suitable for such techniques. Flexor hallucis longus tendon transfer is an established treatment for chronic ruptures of the tendo Achillis. We report the successful treatment of an infected tendo Achillis with excision and reconstruction with flexor hallucis longus transfer. The muscle belly of this tendon allowed later skin grafting while the tendon transfer provided good functional recovery

Aims

To evaluate the donor site morbidity and tendon morphology after harvesting whole length, full-thickness peroneus longus tendon (PLT) proximal to the lateral malleolus for ligament reconstructions or tendon transfer.

In recent years, the plantaris tendon has been implicated in the development of chronic painful mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy. In some cases, a thickened plantaris tendon is closely associated with the Achilles tendon, and surgical excision of the plantaris tendon has been reported to be curative in patients who have not derived benefit following conservative treatment and surgical interventions.

The aim of this review is to outline the basic aspects of, and the recent research findings, related to the plantaris tendon, covering anatomical and clinical studies including those dealing with histology, imaging and treatment.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1312–19.

Aims

The traditional transosseus flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendon transfer for patients with Achilles tendinopathy requires two incisions to harvest a long tendon graft. The use of a bio-tenodesis screw enables a short graft to be used and is less invasive, but lacks supporting evidence about its biomechanical behaviour. We aimed, in this study, to compare the strength of the traditional transosseus tendon-to-tendon fixation with tendon-to-bone fixation using a tenodesis screw, in cyclical loading and ultimate load testing.

Injuries to the foot in athletes are often subtle and can lead to a substantial loss of function if not diagnosed and treated appropriately. For these injuries in general, even after a diagnosis is made, treatment options are controversial and become even more so in high level athletes where limiting the time away from training and competition is a significant consideration.

In this review, we cover some of the common and important sporting injuries affecting the foot including updates on their management and outcomes.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1299–1311.

A total of seven patients (six men and one woman) with a defect in the Achilles tendon and overlying soft tissue underwent reconstruction using either a composite radial forearm flap (n = 3) or an anterolateral thigh flap (n = 4). The Achilles tendons were reconstructed using chimeric palmaris longus (n = 2) or tensor fascia lata (n = 2) flaps or transfer of the flexor hallucis longus tendon (n = 3). Surgical parameters such as the rate of complications and the time between the initial repair and flap surgery were analysed. Function was measured objectively by recording the circumference of the calf, the isometric strength of the plantar flexors and the range of movement of the ankle. The Achilles tendon Total Rupture Score (ATRS) questionnaire was used as a patient-reported outcome measure. Most patients had undergone several previous operations to the Achilles tendon prior to flap surgery. The mean time to flap surgery was 14.3 months (2.1 to 40.7).

At a mean follow-up of 32.3 months (12.1 to 59.6) the circumference of the calf on the operated lower limb was reduced by a mean of 1.9 cm (sd 0.74) compared with the contralateral limb (p = 0.042). The mean strength of the plantar flexors on the operated lower limb was reduced to 88.9% of that of the contralateral limb (p = 0.043). There was no significant difference in the range of movement between the two sides (p = 0.317). The mean ATRS score was 72 points (sd 20.0). One patient who had an initial successful reconstruction developed a skin defect of the composite flap 12 months after free flap surgery and this resulted in recurrent infections, culminating in transtibial amputation 44 months after reconstruction.

These otherwise indicate that reconstruction of the Achilles tendon combined with flap cover results in a successful and functional reconstruction.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:215–20.

The last decade has seen a considerable increase in the use of in total ankle arthroplasty (TAA) to treat patients with end-stage arthritis of the ankle. However, the longevity of the implants is still far from that of total knee and hip arthroplasties.

The aim of this review is to outline a diagnostic and treatment algorithm for the painful TAA to be used when considering revision surgery.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:5–11.

Sporting injuries around the ankle vary from simple sprains that will resolve spontaneously within a few days to severe injuries which may never fully recover and may threaten the career of a professional athlete. Some of these injuries can be easily overlooked altogether or misdiagnosed with potentially devastating effects on future performance. In this review article, we cover some of the common and important sporting injuries involving the ankle including updates on their management and outcomes.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:874–83.

The incidence of acute and chronic conditions of the tendo Achillis appear to be increasing. Causation is multifactorial but the role of inherited genetic elements and the influence of environmental factors altering gene expression are increasingly being recognised. Certain individuals’ tendons carry specific variations of genetic sequence that may make them more susceptible to injury. Alterations in the structure or relative amounts of the components of tendon and fine control of activity within the extracellular matrix affect the response of the tendon to loading with failure in certain cases.

This review summarises present knowledge of the influence of genetic patterns on the pathology of the tendo Achillis, with a focus on the possible biological mechanisms by which genetic factors are involved in the aetiology of tendon pathology. Finally, we assess potential future developments with both the opportunities and risks that they may carry.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:305–13.

We present a review of litigation claims relating to foot and ankle surgery in the NHS in England during the 17-year period between 1995 and 2012.

A freedom of information request was made to obtain data from the NHS litigation authority (NHSLA) relating to orthopaedic claims, and the foot and ankle claims were reviewed.

During this period of time, a total of 10 273 orthopaedic claims were made, of which 1294 (12.6%) were related to the foot and ankle. 1036 were closed, which comprised of 1104 specific complaints. Analysis was performed using the complaints as the denominator. The cost of settling these claims was more than £36 million.

There were 372 complaints (33.7%) involving the ankle, of which 273 (73.4%) were related to trauma. Conditions affecting the first ray accounted for 236 (21.4%), of which 232 (98.3%) concerned elective practice. Overall, claims due to diagnostic errors accounted for 210 (19.0%) complaints, 208 (18.8%) from alleged incompetent surgery and 149 (13.5%) from alleged mismanagement.

Our findings show that the incorrect, delayed or missed diagnosis of conditions affecting the foot and ankle is a key area for improvement, especially in trauma practice.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1510–14.

A total of 80 patients with an acute rupture of tendo Achillis were randomised to operative repair using an open technique (39 patients) or non-operative treatment in a cast (41 patients). Patients were followed up for one year. Outcome measures included clinical complications, range of movement of the ankle, the Short Musculoskeletal Function Assessment (SMFA), and muscle function dynamometry evaluating dorsiflexion and plantar flexion of the ankle. The primary outcome measure was muscle dynamometry.

Re-rupture occurred in two of 37 patients (5%) in the operative group and four of 39 (10%) in the non-operative group, which was not statistically significant (p = 0.68). There was a slightly greater range of plantar flexion and dorsiflexion of the ankle in the operative group at three months which was not statistically significant, but at four and six months the range of dorsiflexion was better in the non-operative group, although this did not reach statistically significance either. After 12 weeks the peak torque difference of plantar flexion compared with the normal side was less in the operative than the non-operative group (47% vs 61%, respectively, p < 0.005). The difference declined to 26% and 30% at 26 weeks and 20% and 25% at 52 weeks, respectively. The difference in dorsiflexion peak torque from the normal side was less than 10% by 26 weeks in both groups, with no significant differences. The mean SMFA scores were significantly better in the operative group than the non-operative group at three months (15 vs 20, respectively, p < 0.03). No significant differences were observed after this, and at one year the scores were similar in both groups.

We were unable to show a convincing functional benefit from surgery for patients with an acute rupture of the tendo Achillis compared with conservative treatment in plaster.

The incidence of deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) is thought to be low following foot and ankle surgery, but the routine use of chemoprophylaxis remains controversial. This retrospective study assessed the incidence of symptomatic venous thromboembolic (VTE) complications following a consecutive series of 2654 patients undergoing elective foot and ankle surgery. A total of 1078 patients received 75 mg aspirin as routine thromboprophylaxis between 2003 and 2006 and 1576 patients received no form of chemical thromboprophylaxis between 2007 and 2010. The overall incidence of VTE was 0.42% (DVT, 0.27%; PE, 0.15%) with 27 patients lost to follow-up. If these were included to create a worst case scenario, the overall VTE rate was 1.43%. There was no apparent protective effect against VTE by using aspirin.

We conclude that the incidence of VTE following foot and ankle surgery is very low and routine use of chemoprophylaxis does not appear necessary for patients who are not in the high risk group for VTE.

Objectives

To evaluate the applicability of MRI for the quantitative assessment of anterior talofibular ligaments (ATFLs) in symptomatic chronic ankle instability (CAI).

We report an audit of 208 patients with a mean age of 39 years (16 to 65) attending the Orthopaedic Assessment Unit at the Wellington Hospital between January 2006 and December 2007 with an injury of the tendo Achillis requiring immobilisation in a cast. Information on assessment of venous thromboembolism (VTE) risk, prophylactic measures and VTE events for all patients was obtained from the medical records. A VTE risk factor was documented in the records of three (1%) patients. One of the 208 patients received aspirin prophylaxis; none received low molecular weight heparin. In all, 13 patients (6.3%, 95% confidence interval 3.4 to 10.5) developed symptomatic VTE during immobilisation in a cast, including six with a distal deep-vein thrombosis (DVT), four with a proximal DVT, and three with a confirmed pulmonary embolus. This incidence of symptomatic VTE is similar to that reported following elective hip replacement.

We propose that consideration is given to VTE prophylaxis during prolonged immobilisation of the lower limbs in a cast, to ensure that the same level of protection is provided as for patients undergoing elective hip replacement.

Lengthening of the conjoined tendon of the gastrocnemius aponeurosis and soleus fascia is frequently used in the treatment of equinus deformities in children and adults. The Vulpius procedure as described in most orthopaedic texts is a division of the conjoined tendon in the shape of an inverted V. However, transverse division was also described by Vulpius and Stoffel, and has been reported in some clinical studies.

We studied the anatomy and biomechanics of transverse division of the conjoined tendon in 12 human cadavers (24 legs). Transverse division of the conjoined tendon resulted in predictable, controlled lengthening of the gastrocsoleus muscle-tendon unit. The lengthening achieved was dependent both on the level of the cut in the conjoined tendon and division of the midline raphé. Division at a proximal level resulted in a mean lengthening of 15.2 mm (sd 2.0, (12 to 19), which increased to 17.1 mm (sd 1.8, (14 to 20) after division of the midline raphé. Division at a distal level resulted in a mean lengthening of 21.0 mm (sd 2.0, (18 to 25), which increased to 26.4 mm (sd 1.4, (24 to 29) after division of the raphé. These differences were significant (p < 0.001).

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:778–82.

Metatarsus primus varus deformity correction is one of the main objectives in hallux valgus surgery. A ‘syndesmosis’ procedure may be used to correct hallux valgus. An osteotomy is not involved. The aim is to realign the first metatarsal using soft tissues and a cerclage wire around the necks of the first and second metatarsals.

We have retrospectively assessed 27 patients (54 feet) using the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) score, radiographs and measurements of the plantar pressures after bilateral syndesmosis procedures. There were 26 women. The mean age of the patients was 46 years (18 to 70) and the mean follow-up was 26.4 months (24 to 33.4). Matched-pair comparisons of the AOFAS scores, the radiological parameters and the plantar pressure measurements were conducted pre- and post-operatively, with the mean of the left and right feet. The mean AOFAS score improved from 62.8 to 94.4 points (p < 0.001). Significant differences were found on all radiological parameters (p < 0.001). The mean hallux valgus and first intermetatarsal angles were reduced from 33.2° (24.3° to 49.8°) to 19.1° (10.1° to 45.3°) (p < 0.001) and from 15.0° (10.2° to 18.6°) to 7.2° (4.2° to 11.4°) (p < 0.001) respectively. The mean medial sesamoid position changed from 6.3(4.5 to 7) to 3.6 (2 to 7) (p < 0.001) according to the Hardy’s scale (0 to 7). The mean maximum force and the force–time integral under the hallux region were significantly increased by 71.1% (p = 0.001), (20.57 (0.08 to 58.3) to 35.20 (6.63 to 67.48)) and 73.4% (p = 0.014), (4.44 (0.00 to 22.74) to 7.70 (1.28 to 19.23)) respectively. The occurrence of the maximum force under the hallux region was delayed by 11% (p = 0.02), (87.3% stance (36.3% to 100%) to 96.8% stance (93.0% to 100%)). The force data reflected the restoration of the function of the hallux. Three patients suffered a stress fracture of the neck of the second metatarsal. The short-term results of this surgical procedure for the treatment of hallux valgus are satisfactory.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:502–7.

We investigated the clinical and radiological outcome after unilateral fracture of the lateral process of the talus in 23 snowboarders with a mean follow-up of 3.5 years (12 to 76 months). In this consecutive cohort study both operative and non-operative cases were considered.

The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society hindfoot score was 94 (82 to 100). The non-operative group of seven with a minimally-displaced fracture scored higher (98 points) than the operative group of 16 with displaced or unstable fractures (93 points). In 88% of operative cases, significant concomitant hindfoot injuries were found at operation. All but eight (35%) patients (six operative and two non-operative) regained their pre-injury level of sporting activity. Subtalar osteoarthritis was present in nine (45%) of the 20 patients available for radiological review, including one late-diagnosed non-operative case and eight operative cases with associated injuries or fracture comminution.

The outcome after fracture of the lateral process of the talus in snowboarders is favourable provided an early diagnosis is made and adequate treatment, which is related to the degree of displacement and associated injuries, is undertaken.

Supination-external rotation (SER) fractures of the ankle may present with a medial ligamentous injury that is not apparent on the initial radiographs. A cadaver gravity-stress view has been described, but the manual-stress view is considered to be the examination of choice for the diagnosis of medial injuries. We prospectively compared the efficacy of these two examinations.

We undertook both examinations in 29 patients with SER fractures. Of these, 16 (55%) were stress-positive, i.e. and had widening of the medial clear space of > 4 mm with a mean medial clear space of 6.09 mm (4.4 to 8.1) on gravity-stress and 5.81 mm (4.0 to 8.2) on manual-stress examination, and 13 patients (45%) were stress-negative with a mean medial clear space of 3.91 mm (3.3 to 5.1) and 3.61 mm (2.6 to 4.5) on examination of gravity- and manual-stress respectively. The mean absolute visual analgoue scale score for discomfort in the examination of gravity stress was 3.45 (1 to 6) and in the manual-stress procedure 6.14 (3 to 10).

We have shown that examination of gravity-stress is as reliable and perceived as more comfortable than that of manual stress. We recommend using it as the initial diagnostic screening examination for the detection of occult medial ligamentous injuries in SER fractures of the ankle.

It has been suggested that a supramalleolar osteotomy can return the load distribution in the ankle joint to normal. However, due to the lack of biomechanical data, this supposition remains empirical. The purpose of this biomechanical study was to determine the effect of simulated supramalleolar varus and valgus alignment on the tibiotalar joint pressure, in order to investigate its relationship to the development of osteoarthritis. We also wished to establish the rationale behind corrective osteotomy of the distal tibia.

We studied 17 cadaveric lower legs and quantified the changes in pressure and force transfer across the tibiotalar joint for various degrees of varus and valgus deformity in the supramalleolar area. We assumed that a supramalleolar osteotomy which created a varus deformity of the ankle would result in medial overload of the tibiotalar joint. Similarly, we thought that creating a supramalleolar valgus deformity would cause a shift in contact towards the lateral side of the tibiotalar joint. The opposite was observed. The restricting role of the fibula was revealed by carrying out an osteotomy directly above the syndesmosis. In end-stage ankle osteoarthritis with either a valgus or varus deformity, the role of the fibula should be appreciated and its effect addressed where appropriate.

Diagnostic and operative codes are routinely collected for every patient admitted to hospital in the English NHS. Data on post-operative complications following foot and ankle surgery have not previously been available in large numbers. Data on symptomatic venous thromboembolism events and mortality within 90 days were extracted for patients undergoing fixation of an ankle fracture, first metatarsal osteotomy, hindfoot fusions and total ankle replacement over a period of 42 months. For ankle fracture surgery (45 949 patients), the rates of deep-vein thrombosis (DVT), pulmonary embolism and mortality were 0.12%, 0.17% and 0.37%, respectively. For first metatarsal osteotomy (33 626 patients), DVT, pulmonary embolism and mortality rates were 0.01%, 0.02% and 0.04%, and for hindfoot fusions (7033 patients) the rates were 0.03%, 0.11% and 0.11%, respectively. The rate of pulmonary embolism in 1633 total ankle replacement patients was 0.06%, and there were no recorded DVTs and no deaths. Statistical analysis could only identify risk factors for venous thromboembolic events of increasing age and multiple comorbidities following fracture surgery.

Venous thromboembolism following foot and ankle surgery is extremely rare, but this subset of fracture patients is at a higher risk. However, there is no evidence that thromboprophylaxis reduces this risk, and these national data suggest that prophylaxis is not required in most of these patients.

In this retrospective study, using the prospectively collected database of the AO-Documentation Centre, we analysed the outcome of 57 malunited fractures of the ankle treated by reconstructive osteotomy. In all cases the position of the malunited fibula had been corrected, in several cases it was combined with other osteotomies and the fixation of any non-united fragments. Patients were seen on a regular basis, with a minimum follow-up of ten years. The aim of the study was to establish whether reconstruction improves ankle function and prevents the progression of arthritic changes.

Good or excellent results were obtained in 85% (41) of patients indicating that reconstructive surgery is effective in most and that the beneficial effects can last for up to 27 years after the procedure. Minor post-traumatic arthritis is not a contraindication but rather an indication for reconstructive surgery. We also found that prolonged time to reconstruction is associated negatively with outcome.

We undertook a retrospective review of 24 arthroscopic procedures in patients with symptomatic ossicles around the malleoli of the ankle. Most of the patients had a history of injury and localised tenderness in the area coinciding with the radiological findings. Contrast-enhanced three-dimensional fast-spoiled gradient-echo MRI was performed and the results compared with the arthroscopic findings. An enhanced signal surrounding soft tissue corresponding to synovial inflammation and impingement was found in 20 patients (83%). The arthroscopic findings correlated well with those of our MRI technique and the sensitivity was estimated to be 91%. At a mean follow-up of 30.5 months (20 to 86) the mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society score improved from 74.5 to 93 points (p < 0.001). Overall, the rate of patient satisfaction was 88%.

Our results indicate that symptomatic ossicles of the malleoli respond well to arthroscopic treatment.

We performed a retrospective study to assess the long-term outcome of non-augmented anatomical direct repair of the lateral ankle ligaments, as originally described by Duquennoy et al, for the treatment of chronic lateral instability of the ankle. This procedure aims to restore stability by the re-insertion and tightening of the original talofibular and calcaneofibular ligaments without division of the ligament. We examined the outcome in terms of the post-operative quality of life, the function of the joint and the development of osteoarthritis.

Between 1985 and 2002, 23 patients (11 males, 12 females) with a mean age of 32 years (15 to 58) who had undergone this procedure completed the Short-Form 36 assessment of quality of life and the Olerud and Molander Ankle score for the subjective evaluation of symptoms. Clinical re-evaluation, including examination of the ankle and the completion of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society questionnaire was performed on 21 patients after a mean follow-up of 13 years (3 to 22.2). At the final follow-up radiographs of both ankles were taken to assess the development of osteoarthritis.

The mean total Short-Form 36 and Olerud and Molander Ankle scores in 23 patients at final follow-up were 79.6 points (37 to 100) and 81.6 points (40 to 100), respectively. The mean total post-operative American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society score in 21 patients was 89.7 points (72 to 100). We found a significant post-operative reduction in talar tilt and anterior drawer sign (chi-squared test, p < 0.001). The functional outcome of the procedure was excellent in ten patients (48%), good in seven (33%) and fair in four (19%). The results in terms of ankle function and stability did not deteriorate with time and there was little restriction in movement.

This procedure is simple and effective with a very low rate of complications.