Two consecutive cases of chronic dislocation of the head of the radius after missed Bado type-I Monteggia lesions are presented. Reduction was successfully achieved in both patients after ulnar corticotomy, gradual lengthening and angulation of the ulna using an external fixator. Open reduction or reconstruction of the radio-ulnar capitellar joint was not undertaken. The age at injury was seven years in the older and two years in the younger patient. The time from injury to treatment was five years in the older and three months in the younger child. At follow-up, nine years after completion of treatment in the older and eight months in the younger patient, both show satisfactory movement, function of the forearm and reduction of the head of the radius. This technique may be considered in missed Monteggia lesions before open procedures on the radio-ulnar capitellar joint are undertaken

We undertook a prospective MRI study to measure the retroversion of the humeral head in 33 consecutive infants with a mean age of 1 year 10 months (3 months to 7 years 4 months) who had an obstetric brachial plexus lesion (OBPL). According to a standardised MRI protocol both shoulders and humeral condyles were examined and the shape of the glenoid and humeral retroversion determined. The mean humeral retroversion of the affected shoulder was significantly increased compared with the normal contralateral side (−28.4 ± 12.5° v −21.5 ± 15.1°, p = 0.02). This increase was found only in the children over the age of 12 months. In this group humeral retroversion was −29.9 ± 12.9° compared with −19.6 ± 15.6° in the normal shoulder (p = 0.009), giving a mean difference of 10.3° (95% confidence interval 3.3 to 17.3). This finding is of importance when considering the operative treatment for subluxation of the shoulder in children with an OBPL

We performed a prospective study using MRI in 16 consecutive infants with a mean age of 5.2 months (2.7 to 8.7) who had shown inadequate recovery from an obstetric lesion of the brachial plexus in the first three months of life, in order to identify early secondary deformities of the shoulder. Shoulders were analysed according to a standardised MRI protocol. Measurements were made of the appearance of the glenoid, glenoid version and the position of the humeral head. The appearance of the glenoid on the affected side was normal in only seven shoulders. In the remainder it was convex in seven and bioconcave in three. The degree of subluxation of the humeral head was significantly greater (p = 0.01) in the affected shoulders than in normal shoulders (157° v 170°). The presence of an abnormal appearance of the glenoid, retroversion of the glenoid and subluxation of the humeral head increased with age. There was a statistical difference (p = 0.05) between infants younger than five months and those who were older

Aims. Osteofibrous dysplasia (OFD) is a rare benign lesion predominantly affecting the tibia in children. Its potential link to adamantinoma has influenced management. This international case series reviews the presentation of OFD and management approaches to improve our understanding of OFD. Methods. A retrospective review at three paediatric tertiary centres identified 101 cases of tibial OFD in 99 patients. The clinical records, radiological images, and histology were analyzed. Results. Mean age at presentation was 13.5 years (SD 12.4), and mean follow-up was 5.65 years (SD 5.51). At latest review, 62 lesions (61.4%) were in skeletally mature patients. The most common site of the tibial lesion was the anterior (76 lesions, 75.2%) cortex (63 lesions, 62.4%) of the middle third (52 lesions, 51.5%). Pain, swelling, and fracture were common presentations. Overall, 41 lesions (40.6%) presented with radiological deformity (> 10°): apex anterior in 97.6%. A total of 41 lesions (40.6%) were treated conservatively. Anterior bowing < 10° at presentation was found to be related to successful conservative management of OFD (p = 0.013, multivariable logistic regression). Intralesional excision was performed in 43 lesions (42.6%) and a wide excision of the lesion in 19 (18.8%). A high complication rate and surgical burden was found in those that underwent a wide excision regardless of technique employed. There was progression/recurrence in nine lesions (8.9%) but statistical analysis found no predictive factors. No OFD lesion transformed to adamantinoma. Conclusion. This study confirms OFD to be a benign bone condition with low rates of local progression and without malignant transformation. It is important to distinguish OFD from adamantinoma by a histological diagnosis. Focus should be on angular deformity, monitored with full-length tibial radiographs. Surgery is indicated in symptomatic patients and predicted by the severity of the initial angular deformity. Surgery should focus more on the deformity rather than the lesion. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2022;104-B(2):302–308

Aims. Osteonecrosis (ON) can cause considerable morbidity in young people who undergo treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL). The aims of this study were to determine the operations undertaken for ON in this population in the UK, along with the timing of these operations and any sequential procedures that are used in different joints. We also explored the outcomes of those patients treated by core decompression (CD), and compared this with conservative management, in both the pre- or post-collapse stages of ON. Methods. UK treatment centres were contacted to obtain details regarding surgical interventions and long-term outcomes for patients who were treated for ALL and who developed ON in UKALL 2003 (the national leukaemia study which recruited patients aged 1 to 24 years at diagnosis of ALL between 2003 and 2011). Imaging of patients with ON affecting the femoral head was requested and was used to score all lesions, with subsequent imaging used to determine the final grade. Kaplan-Meier failure time plots were used to compare the use of CD with non surgical management. Results. Detailed information was received for 85 patients who had developed ON during the course of their ALL treatment. A total of 206 joints were affected by ON. Of all joints affected by ON, 21% required arthroplasty, and 43% of all hips affected went on to be replaced. CD was performed in 30% of hips affected by ON. The majority of the hips were grade 4 or 5 at initial diagnosis of ON. There was no significant difference in time to joint collapse between those joints in which CD was performed, compared with no joint-preserving surgical intervention. Conclusion. There is a high incidence of surgery in young people who have received treatment for ALL and who have developed ON. Our results suggest that CD of the femoral head in this group of patients does not delay or improve the rates of femoral head survival. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(3):589–596

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The aim of this study is to evaluate the surgical treatment with the best healing rate for patients with proximal femoral unicameral bone cysts (UBCs) after initial surgery, and to determine which procedure has the lowest adverse event burden during follow-up.

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Multiple secondary surgical procedures of the shoulder, such as soft-tissue releases, tendon transfers, and osteotomies, are described in brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) patients. The long-term functional outcomes of these procedures described in the literature are inconclusive. We aimed to analyze the literature looking for a consensus on treatment options.

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Medial humeral epicondyle fractures (MHEFs) are common elbow fractures in children. Open reduction should be performed in patients with MHEF who have entrapped intra-articular fragments as well as displacement. However, following open reduction, transposition of the ulnar nerve is disputed. The aim of this study is to evaluate the need for ulnar nerve exploration and transposition.

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Congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia (CPT) has traditionally been a difficult condition to treat, with high complication rates, including nonunion, refractures, malalignment, and leg length discrepancy. Surgical approaches to treatment of CPT include intramedullary rodding, external fixation, combined intramedullary rodding and external fixation, vascularized fibular graft, and most recently cross-union. The current study aims to compare the outcomes and complication rates of cross-union versus other surgical approaches as an index surgery for the management of CPT. Our hypothesis was that a good index surgery for CPT achieves union and minimizes complications such as refractures and limb length discrepancy.

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Children with spinal dysraphism can develop various musculoskeletal deformities, necessitating a range of orthopaedic interventions, causing significant morbidity, and making considerable demands on resources. This systematic review aimed to identify what outcome measures have been reported in the literature for children with spinal dysraphism who undergo orthopaedic interventions involving the lower limbs.

We investigated the predictive value of intra-operative neurophysiological investigations in obstetric brachial plexus injuries. Between January 2005 and June 2011 a total of 32 infants of 206 referred to our unit underwent exploration of the plexus, including neurolysis. The findings from intra-operative electromyography, sensory evoked potentials across the lesion and gross muscular response to stimulation were evaluated. A total of 22 infants underwent neurolysis alone and ten had microsurgical reconstruction. Of the former, one was lost to follow-up, one had glenoplasty and three had subsequent nerve reconstructions. Of the remaining 17 infants with neurolysis, 13 (76%) achieved a modified Mallet score > 13 at a mean age of 3.5 years (0.75 to 6.25). Subluxation or dislocation of the shoulder is a major confounding factor. The positive predictive value and sensitivity of the intra-operative EMG for C5 were 100% and 85.7%, respectively, in infants without concurrent shoulder pathology. The positive and negative predictive values, sensitivity and specificity of the three investigations combined were 77%, 100%, 100% and 57%, respectively. In all, 20 infants underwent neurolysis alone for C6 and three had reconstruction. All of the former and one of the latter achieved biceps function of Raimondi grade 5. The positive and negative predictive values, sensitivity and specificity of electromyography for C6 were 65%, 71%, 87% and 42%, respectively. Our method is effective in evaluating the prognosis of C5 lesion. Neurolysis is preferred for C6 lesions. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:699–705

Osteofibrous dysplasia is an unusual developmental condition of childhood, which almost exclusively affects the tibia. It is thought to follow a slowly progressive course and to stabilise after skeletal maturity. The possible link with adamantinoma is controversial and some authors believe that they are part of one histological process. We retrospectively reviewed 16 patients who were diagnosed as having osteofibrous dysplasia initially or on the final histological examination. Their management was diverse, depending on the severity of symptoms and the extent of the lesion. Definitive (extraperiosteal) surgery was localised ‘shark-bite’ excision for small lesions in five patients. Extensive lesions were treated by segmental excision and fibular autograft in six patients, external fixation and bone transport in four and proximal tibial replacement in one. One patient who had a fibular autograft required further excision and bone transport for recurrence. Six initially underwent curettage and all had recurrence. There were no recurrences after localised extraperiosteal excision or bone transport. There were three confirmed cases of adamantinoma. The relevant literature is reviewed. We recommend extraperiosteal excision in all cases of osteofibrous dysplasia, with segmental excision and reconstruction in more extensive lesions

Controversy remains whether the contralateral hip should be fixed in patients presenting with unilateral slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE). This retrospective study compares the outcomes and cost of those patients who had prophylactic fixation with those who did not. Between January 2000 and December 2010 a total of 50 patients underwent unilateral fixation and 36 had prophylactic fixation of the contralateral hip. There were 54 males and 32 females with a mean age of 12.3 years (9 to 16). The rate of a subsequent slip without prophylactic fixation was 46%. The risk of complications was greater, the generic health measures (Short Form-12 physical (p < 0.001) and mental (p = 0.004) summary scores) were worse. Radiographic cam lesions in patients presenting with unilateral SCFE were only seen in patients who did not have prophylactic fixation. Furthermore, prophylactic fixation of the contralateral hip was found to be a cost-effective procedure, with a cost per quality adjusted life year gained of £1431 at the time of last follow-up. . Prophylactic fixation of the contralateral hip is a cost-effective operation that limits the morbidity from the complications of a further slip, and the diminished functional outcome associated with unilateral fixation. . Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:1428–34

The treatment of osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) in children and adolescents is determined by the stability of the lesion and the state of the overlying cartilage. MRI has been advocated as an accurate way of assessing and staging such lesions. Our aim was to determine if MRI scans accurately predicted the subsequent arthroscopic findings in adolescents with OCD of the knee. Some authors have suggested that a high signal line behind a fragment on the T2-weighted image indicates the presence of synovial fluid and is a sign of an unstable lesion. More recent reports have suggested that this high signal line is due to the presence of vascular granulation tissue and may represent a healing reaction. We were able to improve the accuracy of MRI for staging the OCD lesion from 45% to 85% by interpreting the high signal T2 line as a predictor of instability only when it was accompanied by a breach in the cartilage on the T1-weighted image. We conclude that MRI can be used to stage OCD lesions accurately and that a high signal line behind the OCD fragment does not always indicate instability. We recommend the use of an MRI classification system which correlates with the arthroscopic findings

Aims. Delayed diagnosis is a well-known complication of a Monteggia fracture-dislocation. If left untreated, the dislocated radial head later becomes symptomatic. The purposes of this study were firstly, to evaluate the clinical and radiological results of open reduction of the radial head and secondly, to identify the factors that may affect the outcome of this procedure. Materials and Methods. This retrospective study evaluated 30 children with a chronic Monteggia lesion. There were 18 boys and 12 girls with a mean age of 7.4 years (4 to 13) at the time of open reduction. The mean interval to surgery, after the initial fracture, was 23.4 months (6 to 120). Clinical grading used a Kim modified elbow score: radiological outcome was recorded. The effect of the patient’s age, gender, duration from initial injury, Bado classification, and annular ligament reconstruction were analyzed. The mean follow-up was 42.2 months (15 to 20). Results. The Kim elbow scores evaluated at the last clinic visit were excellent in 23 patients, good in three, fair in two, and poor in two. A majority of the patients were found to have significant improvement of elbow flexion (p < 0.001). Six met the criteria of a fair radiological outcome; four of these were operated on more than 24 months after the initial injury, and three had surgery after the age of 11. Univariate analysis failed to find any factor that was significantly associated with a fair or poor outcome. Conclusion. Good clinical and radiological outcomes can be expected in most patients. Osteoarthritic changes were associated with age > 11 years and/or a delay of treatment of > 24 months. However, no statistically significant factor could be identified which correlated with an unfavourable outcome. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:1117–24

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We aimed to address the question on whether there is a place for shoulder stabilization surgery in patients who had voluntary posterior instability starting in childhood and adolescence, and later becoming involuntary and uncontrollable.

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We aimed to describe the epidemiological, biological, and bacteriological characteristics of osteoarticular infections (OAIs) caused by Kingella kingae.

We retrospectively studied the possibility that direct trauma to the biceps muscle might be the cause of poor elbow flexion and supination in 18 consecutive children with birth lesions of the brachial plexus who had delayed or impaired biceps recovery despite neurophysiological evidence of reinnervation. All had good shoulder and hand function at three months of age. Eight recovered a strong biceps after six months, but nine required a pectoralis minor to biceps transfer to augment elbow flexion and supination. One had a delayed but good recovery of the biceps after microsurgical reconstruction of the plexus. All had a clinical ‘pseudotumour’ in the biceps muscle, which was biopsied during pectoralis minor transfer in two patients and showed rupture and degeneration of muscle fibres with a fibro-fatty infiltrate, suggesting previous muscle trauma. Direct muscle trauma is an uncommon but important cause of delayed or impaired biceps recovery after brachial plexus birth injuries. Surgery to reinnervate the biceps muscle will not work if substantial muscle damage is present when a suitable muscle transfer should be considered

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This exploratory randomized controlled trial (RCT) aimed to determine the splint-related outcomes when using the novel biodegradable wood-composite splint (Woodcast) compared to standard synthetic fibreglass (Dynacast) for the immobilization of undisplaced upper limb fractures in children.

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The goal of closed reduction (CR) in the treatment of developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH) is to achieve and maintain concentricity of the femoral head in the acetabulum. However, concentric reduction is not immediately attainable in all hips and it remains controversial to what degree a non-concentric reduction is acceptable. This prospective study is aimed at investigating the dynamic evolution of the hip joint space after CR in DDH using MRI.

Primary subacute haematogenous osteomyelitis (PSHO) of the small bones of the foot is a rare and infrequently considered cause of a limp in children. We describe 11 patients with PSHO, of whom nine were under three years of age, who had a limp with few symptoms. The talus was involved in 36%. Bone scans were positive in all patients and led to localisation of the lesion in two. The radiological features included soft-tissue swelling, an osteolytic lesion in the talus and the calcaneus and a sclerotic appearance of the cuboid and the navicular bones. All patients except one were cured with antibiotics

A five-day-old boy was referred with a soft-tissue mass in his right upper arm. Plain radiographs and ultrasound demonstrated a lesion extending from the axilla to the elbow on the posterolateral aspect of the humerus. Open biopsy confirmed the diagnosis of congenital haemangiopericytoma. After MRI and selective angiography, excision biopsy was carried out, but no adjuvant therapy was administered. At further examination, four years and ten months later, he was noted to have three small nodules at the site of the original tumour. Excision biopsy confirmed this to be a local recurrence, although the lesion was less cellular with no appreciable mitotic activity. Congenital haemangiopericytoma is a rare cause of a soft-tissue mass in children. Most tumours are benign, and recurrence is uncommon. The treatment is controversial, but most centres recommend the use of adjuvant chemotherapy, combined with complete excision. We recommend treatment with doxorubicin. Orthopaedic surgeons should be familiar with this tumour since 30% to 50% of cases occur in the limbs

Between 1990 and 1998 we saw 21 children with primary subacute haematogenous osteomyelitis. Pain, swelling and a limp had been present for two to 12 weeks with little functional impairment. Laboratory tests were non-contributory. The lesions were classified radiologically into metaphyseal, diaphyseal, epiphyseal and vertebral. There were 24 sites involved, with most (20) being in the tibia; 17 lesions were in the diaphysis, five in the metaphysis and two in the epiphysis. The diagnosis was confirmed histologically in all cases. Staphylococcus aureus was cultured in six patients. Healing occurred in all patients after treatment with antibiotics for six weeks and radiological improvement was seen after three to six months. Subacute osteomyelitis develops as a result of increased host resistance and decreased bacterial virulence. The radiological features can mimic various benign or malignant bone tumours and non-pyogenic infections. Histological confirmation is necessary to avoid a delay in diagnosis

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To describe and analyze the mid-term functional outcomes of a large series of patients who underwent the Hoffer procedure for brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP).

We describe the long-term results in ten patients with obstetric brachial plexus palsy of anterior shoulder release combined with transfer of teres major and latissimus dorsi posteriorly and laterally to allow them to act as external rotators. Eight patients had a lesion of the superior trunk and two some involvement of the entire brachial plexus. The mean age at operation was six years, and the mean follow-up was 30 years. Before operation, the patients were unable actively to rotate the arm externally beyond neutral, although this movement was passively normal. All showed decreased strength of the external rotator, but had normal strength of the internal rotator muscles. Radiologically, no severe bony changes were seen in the glenohumeral joint. No clinically detectable improvement of active abduction was noted in any patient. The mean active external rotation after operation was 36.5°. This was maintained for a mean of ten years, and then deteriorated in eight patients. At the latest follow-up the mean active external rotation was 10.5°. The early satisfactory results of the procedure were not maintained. In the long term there was loss of active external rotation, possibly because of gradual degeneration of the transferred muscles, contracture of the surrounding soft tissues and degenerative changes in the glenohumeral joint

Whereas a general trend in the management of obstetric brachial plexus injuries has been nerve reconstruction in patients without spontaneous recovery of biceps function by three to six months of age, many recent studies suggest this may be unnecessary. In this study, the severity of glenohumeral dysplasia and shoulder function and strength in two groups of matched patients with a C5-6 lesion at a mean age of seven years (2.7 to 13.3) were investigated. One group (23 patients) underwent nerve reconstruction and secondary operations, and the other (52 patients) underwent only secondary operations for similar initial clinical presentations. In the patients with nerve reconstruction shoulder function did not improve and they developed more severe shoulder deformities (posterior subluxation, glenoid version and scapular elevation) and required a mean of 2.4 times as many operations as patients without nerve reconstruction. This study suggests that less invasive management, addressing the muscle and bone complications, is a more effective approach. Nerve reconstruction should be reserved for those less common cases where the C5 and C6 nerve roots will not recover

We undertook a retrospective analysis of 306 procedures on 233 patients, with a mean age of 12 years (1 to 21), in order to evaluate the use of somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) monitoring for the early detection of nerve compromise during external fixation procedures for limb lengthening and correction of deformity. Significant SSEP changes were identified during 58 procedures (19%). In 32 instances (10.5%) the changes were transient, and resolved once the surgical cause had been removed. The remaining 26 (8.5%) were analysed in two groups, depending on whether or not corrective action had been performed in response to critical changes in the SSEP recordings. In 16 cases in which no corrective action was taken, 13 (81.2%, 4.2% overall) developed a post-operative neurological deficit, six of which were permanent and seven temporary, persisting for five to 18 months. In the ten procedures in which corrective action was taken, four patients (40%, 1.3% overall) had a temporary (one to eight months) post-operative neuropathy and six had no deficit. After appropriate intervention in response to SSEP changes, the incidence and severity of neurological deficits were significantly reduced, with no cases of permanent neuropathy. SSEP monitoring showed 100% sensitivity and 91% specificity for the detection of nerve injury during external fixation. It is an excellent diagnostic technique for identifying nerve lesions when they are still highly reversible.

We present three children with primary subacute epiphyseal and metaepiphyseal osteomyelitis. The diagnosis was delayed because of subtle radiological findings and mild general symptoms. Primary epiphyseal osteomyelitis is extremely rare. We believe that this is the first time that the MRI findings have been presented. In the first case they revealed a perforation into the knee and therefore an intra-articular epiphyseal approach was used for debridement. In the second and third cases the metaepiphyseal lesions showed considerable physical involvement and a metaphyseal approach was chosen. We believe that in this condition MRI is essential both for diagnosis and in the planning of surgical treatment

The treatment of osteochondritis dissecans after Legg-Calvé-Perthes’disease hasnot been clearly determined. It may be either by simple observation or surgical removal of the osteochondral fragment. We studied the evolution of the lesion in 13 children and reviewed 92 hips reported in the literature. In our patients ten showed a tendency towards spontaneous healing, one required drilling + grafting to obtain fusion, and in two there was separation into the joint. These loose bodies were in the acetabular fossa and caused no symptoms. On reviewing the literature, we found only four cases of hips with loose bodies from osteochondritis dissecans. These were lying in the inferomedial capsule and were also asymptomatic. Treatment of osteochondritis dissecans after Legg-Calvé-Perthes’ disease should therefore be conservative unless the fragment interferes with the mechanics of the hip

We compared the results of primary ultrasonographic examination of 163 children with 224 suspected fractures with the subsequent radiological findings. The aim was to assess the value of ultrasound in the diagnosis of fractures in children. We found a good correlation for fractures of the long bones of the upper and lower limbs. Ultrasound was most reliable for the detection of simple femoral and humeral diaphyseal fractures and fractures of the forearm. It was less dependable for compound injuries and fractures adjacent to joints, lesions of the small bones of the hand and foot, non-displaced epiphyseal fractures (Salter-Harris type 1) or those with a fracture line of less than 1mm. We were able to distinguish several types of fracture in which the use of ultrasound alone gave reliable information and further radiography was unnecessary. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of skeletal ultrasonographic studies in children

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The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in femoral trochlear morphology following surgical correction of recurrent patellar dislocation associated with trochlear dysplasia in children.

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This study analysed the clinical and radiological outcome of anatomical reduction of a moderate or severe stable slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) treated by subcapital osteotomy (a modified Dunn osteotomy) through the surgical approach described by Ganz.

The aim of this study was to determine whether an osteoplasty of the femoral neck performed at the same time as an intertrochanteric Imhäuser osteotomy led to an improved functional outcome or increased morbidity. A total of 20 hips in 19 patients (12 left, 8 right, 13 male, 6 female), who underwent an Imhäuser intertrochanteric osteotomy following a slipped capital femoral epiphysis were assessed over an eight-year period. A total of 13 hips in 13 patients had an osteoplasty of the femoral neck at the same time. The remaining six patients (seven hips) had intertrochanteric osteotomy alone. The mean age was 15.3 years (13 to 20) with a mean follow-up of 57.8 months (15 to 117); 19 of the slips were severe (Southwick grade III) and one was moderate (grade II), with a mean slip angle of 65.3° (50° to 80°); 17 of the slips were stable and three unstable at initial presentation. The mean Non-Arthritic Hip Scores (NAHS) in patients who underwent osteoplasty was 91.7 (76.3 to 100) and the mean NAHS in patients who did not undergo osteoplasty was 76.6 (41.3 to 100) (p = 0.056). Two patients required a subsequent arthroplasty and neither of these patients had an osteoplasty. No hips developed osteonecrosis or chondrolysis, and there was no increase in complications related to the osteoplasty. We recommend that for patients with a slipped upper femoral epiphysis undergoing an intertrochanteric osteotomy, the addition of an osteoplasty of the femoral neck should be considered.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1119–23.

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Single event multilevel surgery (SEMLS) has been shown to improve gait in children with cerebral palsy (CP). However, there is limited evidence regarding long-term outcomes and factors influencing them.

We present the long-term results of open surgery for internal shoulder rotational deformity in brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP).

From 1997 to 2005, 207 patients (107 females, 100 males, mean age 6.2 (0.6 to 34)) were operated on with subscapularis elongation and/or latissimus dorsi to infraspinatus transfer. Incongruent shoulder joints were relocated. The early results of these patients has been reported previously. We analysed 118 (64 females, 54 males, mean age 15.1 (7.6 to 34)) of the original patient cohort at a mean of 10.4 years (7.0 to 15.1) post-operatively. A third of patients with relocated joints had undergone secondary internal rotational osteotomy of the humerus.

A mixed effects models approach was used to evaluate the effects of surgery on shoulder rotation, abduction, and the Mallet score. Independent factors were time (pre-and post-surgery), gender, age, joint category (congruent, relocated, relocated plus osteotomy) and whether or not a transfer had been performed. Data from a previously published short-term evaluation were reworked in order to obtain pre-operative values.

The mean improvement in external rotation from pre-surgery to the long-term follow-up was 66.5° (95% confidence interval (CI) 61.5 to 71.6). The internal rotation had decreased by a mean of 22.6° (95% CI -18.7 to -26.5). The mean improvement in the three-grade aggregate Mallet score was 3.1 (95% CI 2.7 to 3.4), from 8.7 (95% CI 8.4 to 9.0) to 11.8 (11.5 to 12.1).

Our results show that open subscapularis elongation achieves good long-term results for patients with BPBP and an internal rotation contracture, providing lasting joint congruency and resolution of the trumpet sign, but with a moderate mean loss of internal rotation.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1411–18

Between June 2001 and November 2008 a modified Dunn osteotomy with a surgical hip dislocation was performed in 30 hips in 28 patients with slipped capital femoral epiphysis. Complications and clinical and radiological outcomes after a mean follow-up of 3.8 years (1.0 to 8.5) were documented. Subjective outcome was assessed using the Harris hip score and the Western Ontario and McMaster Universities osteoarthritis index questionnaire.

Anatomical or near-anatomical reduction was achieved in all cases. The epiphysis in one hip showed no perfusion intra-operatively and developed avascular necrosis. There was an excellent outcome in 28 hips. Failure of the implants with a need for revision surgery occurred in four hips.

Anatomical reduction can be achieved by this technique, with a low risk of avascular necrosis. Cautious follow-up is necessary in order to avoid implant failure.

We evaluated results at one year after surgical correction of internal rotation deformities in the shoulders of 270 patients with obstetric brachial plexus palsy. The mean age at surgery was 6.2 years (0.6 to 35). Two techniques were used: open subscapularis elongation and latissimus dorsi to infraspinatus transfer. In addition, open relocation was performed or attempted in all patients with subluxed or dislocated joints. A mixed effects model approach was used to evaluate the effects of surgery on internal and external rotation, abduction, flexion and Mallet score. Independent factors included operative status (pre- or post-operative), gender, age, the condition of the joint, and whether or not transfer was performed. The overall mean improvement in external rotation following surgery was 84.6° (95% confidence interval (CI) 80.2 to 89.1) and the mean Mallet score improved by 4.0 (95% CI 3.7 to 4.2). There was a mean decrease in internal rotation of between 27.6° and 34.4° in the relocated joint groups and 8.6° (95% CI 5.2 to 12.0) in the normal joint group. Abduction and flexion were unchanged following surgery. Adding a latissimus dorsi transfer did not result in greater improvement in the mean external rotation compared with elongation of the subscapularis alone.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1432–8.

Recent reports have suggested an increase in the number of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in children, although their true incidence is unknown.

The prognosis of the ACL-deficient knee in young active individuals is poor because of secondary meniscal tears, persistent instability and early-onset osteoarthritis. The aim of surgical reconstruction is to provide stability while avoiding physeal injury. Techniques of reconstruction include transphyseal, extraphyseal or partial physeal sparing procedures.

In this paper we review the management of ACL tears in skeletally immature patients.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1562–9.

We report the outcome of 28 patients with spina bifida who between 1989 and 2006 underwent 43 lower extremity deformity corrections using the Ilizarov technique. The indications were a flexion deformity of the knee in 13 limbs, tibial rotational deformity in 11 and foot deformity in 19. The mean age at operation was 12.3 years (5.2 to 20.6). Patients had a mean of 1.6 previous operations (0 to 5) on the affected limb. The mean duration of treatment with a frame was 9.4 weeks (3 to 26) and the mean follow-up was 4.4 years (1 to 9). There were 12 problems (27.9%), five obstacles (11.6%) and 13 complications (30.2%) in the 43 procedures. Further operations were needed in seven patients. Three knees had significant recurrence of deformity. Two tibiae required further surgery for recurrence. All feet were plantigrade and braceable.

We conclude that the Ilizarov technique offers a refreshing approach to the complex lower-limb deformity in spina bifida.

Congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia (CPT) is a rare but well recognised condition. Obtaining union of the pseudarthrosis in these children is often difficult and may require several surgical procedures. The treatment has changed significantly since the review by Hardinge in 1972, but controversies continue as to the best form of surgical treatment. This paper reviews these controversies.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1027–34.

Of 48 consecutive children with Gartland III supracondylar fractures, 11 (23%) had evidence of vascular injury, with an absent radial pulse. The hand was pink and warm in eight and white and cold in the other three patients. They underwent colour-coded duplex scanning (CCDS) and ultrasound velocimetry (UV) to investigate the patency of the brachial artery and arterial blood flow. In seven patients with a pink pulseless hand, CCDS showed a displaced, kinked and spastic brachial artery and a thrombosis was present in the other. In all cases UV showed reduced blood flow in the hand. In three patients with a white pulseless hand, scanning demonstrated a laceration in the brachial artery and/or thrombosis. In all cases, the fracture was reduced under general anaesthesia and fixed with Kirschner wires. Of the seven patients with a pink pulseless hand without thrombosis, the radial pulse returned after reduction in four cases. The remaining three underwent exploration, along with the patients with laceration in the brachial artery and/or thrombosis.

We believe that the traditional strategy of watchful waiting in children in whom the radial pulse remains absent in spite of good peripheral perfusion should be revisited. Vascular investigation using these non-invasive techniques that are quick and reliable is recommended in the management of these patients.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:694–98.

We present our experience of the modified Dunn procedure in combination with a Ganz surgical dislocation of the hip to treat patients with severe slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE). The aim was to prospectively investigate whether this technique is safe and reproducible. We assessed the degree of reduction, functional outcome, rate of complications, radiological changes and range of movement in the hip. There were 28 patients with a mean follow-up of 38.6 months (24 to 84). The lateral slip angle was corrected by a mean of 50.9° (95% confidence interval 44.3 to 57.5). The mean modified Harris hip score at the final follow-up was 89.1 (sd 9.0) and the mean Non-Arthritic Hip score was 91.3 (sd 9.0). Two patients had proven pre-existing avascular necrosis and two developed the condition post-operatively. There were no cases of nonunion, implant failure, infection, deep-vein thrombosis or heterotopic ossification. The range of movement at final follow-up was nearly normal. This study adds to the evidence that the technique of surgical dislocation and anatomical reduction is safe and reliable in patients with SCFE.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:424–9.

The use of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) for the treatment of congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia has been investigated in only one previous study, with promising results. The aim of this study was to determine whether rhBMP-2 might improve the outcome of this disorder. We reviewed the medical records of five patients with a mean age of 7.4 years (2.3 to 21) with congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia who had been treated with rhBMP-2 and intramedullary rodding. Ilizarov external fixation was also used in four of these patients. Radiological union of the pseudarthrosis was evident in all of them at a mean of 3.5 months (3.2 to 4) post-operatively. The Ilizarov device was removed after a mean of 4.2 months (3.0 to 5.3). These results indicate that treatment of congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia using rhBMP-2 in combination with intramedullary stabilisation and Ilizarov external fixation may improve the initial rate of union and reduce the time to union.

Further studies with more patients and longer follow-up are necessary to determine whether this surgial procedure may significantly enhance the outcome of congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia, considering the refracture rate (two of five patients) in this small case series.

Deformity of the forearm due to growth disturbance of the ulna occurs in a number of conditions such as ulnar deficiency, multiple exostoses, and neurofibromatosis. We report a previously unrecognised form, caused by focal cortical indentation.

We have treated five children with this condition, three girls and two boys; the mean age at presentation was 5 years (2 to 8). The deformity was first recognised about the age of two years, and progressed gradually. The radiological findings were the same in all cases. The focal cortical indentation was seen at the distal end of the ulna with anteromedial bowing and dysplasia. The radial head was dislocated posterolaterally. In one patient the histological findings at the site of indentation were of a fold of tissue resembling periosteum, which interfered with enchondral ossification. Treatment by ulnar lengthening using an external fixator and osteotomy which corrected both the ulnar deformity and reduced the dislocated radial head in two cases gave the best results.

We present our early experience of arthroscopic reduction of the dislocated hip in very young infants with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH).

Eight dislocated hips, which had failed attempts at closed reduction, were treated by arthroscopy of the hip in five children with a mean age of 5.8 months (4 to 7). A two-portal technique was used, with a medial sub-adductor portal for a 2.7 mm cannulated system with a 70° arthroscope and an anterolateral portal for the instruments. Following evaluation of the key intra-articular structures, the hypertrophic ligamentum teres and acetabular pulvinar were resected, and a limited release of the capsule was performed prior to reduction of the hip. All hips were reduced by a single arthroscopic procedure, the reduction being confirmed on MRI scan. None of the hips had an inverted labrum. The greatest obstacle to reduction was a constriction of the capsule. At a mean follow-up of 13.2 months (9 to 24), all eight hips remained stable. Three developed avascular necrosis. The mean acetabular index decreased from 35.5° (30° to 40°) pre-operatively to 23.3° (17° to 28°).

This study demonstrates that arthroscopic reduction is feasible using two standardised portals. Longer follow-up studies are necessary to evaluate the functional results.

Congenital pseudarthrosis of the tibia is an uncommon manifestation of neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1), but one that remains difficult to treat due to anabolic deficiency and catabolic excess. Bone grafting and more recently recombinant human bone morphogenetic proteins (rhBMPs) have been identified as pro-anabolic stimuli with the potential to improve the outcome after surgery. As an additional pharmaceutical intervention, we describe the combined use of rhBMP-2 and the bisphosphonate zoledronic acid in a mouse model of NF1-deficient fracture repair.

Fractures were generated in the distal tibiae of neurofibromatosis type 1-deficient (Nf1^+/−) mice and control mice. Fractures were open and featured periosteal stripping. All mice received 10 μg rhBMP-2 delivered in a carboxymethylcellulose carrier around the fracture as an anabolic stimulus. Bisphosphonate-treated mice also received five doses of 0.02 mg/kg zoledronic acid given by intraperitoneal injection.

When only rhBMP but no zoledronic acid was used to promote repair, 75% of fractures in Nf1^+/− mice remained ununited at three weeks compared with 7% of controls (p < 0.001). Systemic post-operative administration of zoledronic acid halved the rate of ununited fractures to 37.5% (p < 0.07).

These data support the concept that preventing bone loss in combination with anabolic stimulation may improve the outcome following surgical treatment for children with congenital pseudarthoris of the tibia and NF1.

Septicaemia resulting from meningococcal infection is a devastating illness affecting children. Those who survive can develop late orthopaedic sequelae from growth plate arrests, with resultant complex deformities. Our aim in this study was to review the case histories of a series of patients with late orthopaedic sequelae, all treated by the senior author (CFB). We also describe a treatment strategy to address the multiple deformities that may occur in these patients.

Between 1997 and 2009, ten patients (seven girls and three boys) were treated for late orthopaedic sequelae following meningococcal septicaemia. All had involvement of the lower limbs, and one also had involvement of the upper limbs. Each patient had a median of three operations (one to nine). Methods of treatment included a combination of angular deformity correction, limb lengthening and epiphysiodesis. All patients were skeletally mature at the final follow-up. One patient with bilateral below-knee amputations had satisfactory correction of her right amputation stump deformity, and has complete ablation of both her proximal tibial growth plates. In eight patients length discrepancy in the lower limb was corrected to within 1 cm, with normalisation of the mechanical axis of the lower limb.

Meningococcal septicaemia can lead to late orthopaedic sequelae due to growth plate arrests. Central growth plate arrests lead to limb-length discrepancy and the need for lengthening procedures, and peripheral growth plate arrests lead to angular deformities requiring corrective osteotomies and ablation of the damaged physis. In addition, limb amputations may be necessary and there may be altered growth of the stump requiring further surgery. Long-term follow-up of these patients is essential to recognise and treat any recurrence of deformity.

In 1994, a register for cerebral palsy and a health-care programme were started in southern Sweden with the aim of preventing dislocation of the hip in children with cerebral palsy. It involved all children with cerebral palsy born in 1992 or later.

None of the 206 affected children born between 1992 and 1997 has developed a dislocation following the introduction of the prevention programme. Another 48 children moved into the area and none developed any further dislocation. Of the 251 children with cerebral palsy, aged between five and 11 years, living in the area on January 1, 2003, only two had a dislocated hip. One boy had moved into the area at age of nine with a dislocation and a girl whose parents chose not to participate in the programme developed bilateral dislocation. One boy, whose condition was considered to be too poor for preventative surgery, developed a painful dislocation of the hip at the age of five years and died three years later.

Eight of 103 children in a control group, consisting of all children with cerebral palsy living in the area between 1994 and 2002, and born between 1990 and 1991, developed a dislocation of the hip before the age of six years.

The decreased incidence of dislocation after the introduction of the prevention programme was significant (p < 0.001). Dislocation of the hip in cerebral palsy remains a serious problem, and prevention is important. Our screening programme and early intervention when lateral displacement of the femoral head was detected appear to be successful.

We examined differences in the rate of open reduction, operating time, length of hospital stay and outcome between two groups of children with displaced supracondylar fractures of the humerus who underwent surgery either within 12 hours of the injury or later.

There were 77 children with type-3 supracondylar fractures. Of these, in 43 the fracture was reduced and pinned within 12 hours and in 34 more than 12 hours after injury. Both groups were similar in regard to gender, age and length of follow-up. Bivariate and logistical regression analysis showed no statistical difference between the groups. The number of peri-operative complications was low and did not affect the outcome regardless of the timing of treatment.

Our study confirmed that the treatment of uncomplicated displaced supracondylar fractures of the humerus can be early or delayed. In these circumstances operations at night can be avoided.

We have evaluated the clinical outcomes of simple excision, ulnar lengthening and the Sauvé-Kapandji procedure in the treatment of deformities of the forearm in patients with multiple hereditary osteochondromas. The medical records of 29 patients (33 forearms) were reviewed; 22 patients (22 forearms) underwent simple excision (four with ulnar lengthening) and seven the Sauvé-Kapandji procedure.

Simple excision increased the mean supination of the forearm from 63.2° to 75.0° (p = 0.049). Ulnar lengthening did not significantly affect the clinical outcome. The Sauvé-Kapandji technique improved the mean pronation from 33.6° to 55.0° (p = 0.047) and supination from 70.0° to 81.4° (p = 0.045). Simple excision may improve the range of movement of the forearm but will not halt the progression of disease, particularly in younger patients. No discernable clinical or radiological improvement was noted with ulnar lengthening. The Sauvé-Kapandji procedure combined with simple excision of osteochondromas can improve stability of the wrist, movement of the forearm and the radiological appearance.

Between July 2000 and April 2004, 19 patients with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy who required an assistive device to walk had combined lengthening-transfer of the medial hamstrings as part of multilevel surgery. A standardised physical examination, measurement of the Functional Mobility Scale score and video or instrumented gait analysis were performed pre- and post-operatively. Static parameters (popliteal angle, flexion deformity of the knee) and sagittal knee kinematic parameters (knee flexion at initial contact, minimum knee flexion during stance, mean knee flexion during stance) were recorded. The mean length of follow-up was 25 months (14 to 45).

Statistically significant improvements in static and dynamic outcome parameters were found, corresponding to improvements in gait and functional mobility as determined by the Functional Mobility Scale. Mild hyperextension of the knee during gait developed in two patients and was controlled by adjustment of their ankle-foot orthosis. Residual flexion deformity > 10° occurred in both knees of one patient and was treated by anterior distal femoral physeal stapling. Two children also showed an improvement of one level in the Gross Motor Function Classification System.

Between 1990 and 2001, 24 children aged between 15 months and 11 years presented with late orthopaedic sequelae after meningococcal septicaemia. The median time to presentation was 32 months (12 to 119) after the acute phase of the disease. The reasons for referral included angular deformity, limb-length discrepancy, joint contracture and problems with prosthetic fitting. Angular deformity with or without limb-length discrepancy was the most common presentation. Partial growth arrest was the cause of the angular deformity. Multiple growth-plate involvement occurred in 14 children. The lower limbs were affected much more often than the upper. Twenty-three children underwent operations for realignment of the mechanical axis and limb-length equalisation. In 15 patients with angular deformity around the knee the deformity recurred. As a result we recommend performing a realignment procedure with epiphysiodesis of the remaining growth plate when correcting angular deformities.

We reviewed 15 patients, nine girls and six boys, with chronic anterior dislocation of the radial head which was treated by ulnar osteotomy, external fixation and open reconstruction of the elbow joint but without repair of the annular ligament. Their mean age was 9.5 years (5 to 15) and the mean interval between the injury and reconstruction was 22 months (2 months to 7 years).

All radial heads remained reduced at a mean follow-up of 20 months (6 months to 5 years). Normal ranges of movement for flexion, extension, pronation and supination were unchanged in 96.1% (49/51) and worse in 3.9% (2/51). Limited ranges of movement were improved in 77.8% (7/9), unchanged in 11% (1/9) and further decreased in 11% (1/9).There were two superficial pin-track infections and two cases of delayed union but with no serious complications. Reconstruction of the radiocapitellar joint is easier using external fixation since accurate correction of the ulna can be determined empirically and active functional exercises started immediately. Only patients with a radial head of normal shape were selected for treatment by this method.

Most children with spastic hemiplegia have high levels of function and independence but fixed deformities and gait abnormalities are common. The classification proposed by Winters et al is widely used to interpret hemiplegic gait patterns and plan intervention. However, this classification is based on sagittal kinematics and fails to consider important abnormalities in the transverse plane. Using three-dimensional gait analysis, we studied the incidence of transverse-plane deformity and gait abnormality in 17 children with group IV hemiplegia according to Winters et al before and after multilevel orthopaedic surgery.

We found that internal rotation of the hip and pelvic retraction were consistent abnormalities of gait in group-IV hemiplegia. A programme of multilevel surgery resulted in predictable improvement in gait and posture, including pelvic retraction. In group IV hemiplegia pelvic retraction appeared in part to be a compensating mechanism to control foot progression in the presence of medial femoral torsion. Correction of this torsion can improve gait symmetry and function.