Aims. Tourniquets have potential adverse effects including postoperative thigh pain, likely caused by their ischaemic and possible compressive effects. The aims of this preliminary study were to determine if it is possible to directly measure intramuscular pH in human subjects over time, and to measure the intramuscular pH changes resulting from tourniquet ischaemia in patients undergoing knee arthroscopy. Methods. For patients undergoing short knee arthroscopic procedures, a sterile calibrated pH probe was inserted into the anterior fascial compartment of the leg after skin preparation, but before tourniquet inflation. The limb was elevated for three minutes prior to tourniquet inflation to 250 mmHg or 300 mmHg. Intramuscular pH was recorded at one-second intervals throughout the procedure and for 20 minutes following tourniquet deflation. Probe-related adverse events were recorded. Results. A total of 27 patients were recruited to the study. Mean tourniquet time was 21 minutes (10 to 56). Tourniquet pressure was 300 mmHg for 21 patients and 250 mmHg for six patients. Mean muscle pH prior to tourniquet inflation was 6.80. Muscle pH decreased upon tourniquet inflation, with a steeper fall in the first ten minutes than for the rest of the procedure. Change in muscle pH was significant after five minutes of tourniquet ischaemia (p < 0.001). Mean muscle pH prior to tourniquet release was 6.58 and recovered to 6.75 within 20 minutes following release. No probe related adverse events were recorded. Conclusion. It is possible to directly measure skeletal muscle pH in human subjects over time. Tourniquet ischaemia results in a decrease in human skeletal muscle pH over time during short procedures. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(6):363–369

1. The types of ischaemia that accompany injuries to a limb are described. 2. The ischaemia may be total or local. 3. Thirty-seven cases of total or local ischaemia of a limb are analysed and conclusions are drawn therefrom

Aims. Glucose-insulin-potassium (GIK) is protective following cardiac myocyte ischaemia-reperfusion (IR) injury, however the role of GIK in protecting skeletal muscle from IR injury has not been evaluated. Given the similar mechanisms by which cardiac and skeletal muscle sustain an IR injury, we hypothesized that GIK would similarly protect skeletal muscle viability. Methods. A total of 20 C57BL/6 male mice (10 control, 10 GIK) sustained a hindlimb IR injury using a 2.5-hour rubber band tourniquet. Immediately prior to tourniquet placement, a subcutaneous osmotic pump was placed which infused control mice with saline (0.9% sodium chloride) and treated mice with GIK (40% glucose, 50 U/l insulin, 80 mEq/L KCl, pH 4.5) at a rate of 16 µl/hr for 26.5 hours. At 24 hours following tourniquet removal, bilateral (tourniqueted and non-tourniqueted) gastrocnemius muscles were triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC)-stained to quantify percentage muscle viability. Bilateral peroneal muscles were used for gene expression analysis, serum creatinine and creatine kinase activity were measured, and a validated murine ethogram was used to quantify pain before euthanasia. Results. GIK treatment resulted in a significant protection of skeletal muscle with increased viability (GIK 22.07% (SD 15.48%)) compared to saline control (control 3.14% (SD 3.29%)) (p = 0.005). Additionally, GIK led to a statistically significant reduction in gene expression markers of cell death (CASP3, p < 0.001) and inflammation (NOS2, p < 0.001; IGF1, p = 0.007; IL-1β, p = 0.002; TNFα, p = 0.012), and a significant reduction in serum creatine kinase (p = 0.004) and creatinine (p < 0.001). GIK led to a significant reduction in IR-related pain (p = 0.030). Conclusion. Systemic GIK infusion during and after limb ischaemia protects murine skeletal muscle from cell death, kidneys from reperfusion metabolites, and reduces pain by reducing post-ischaemic inflammation. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2023;12(3):212–218

Ischaemia kills osteocytes, but opinions differ as to how long they can survive. These differences are due to the varying methods of inducing ischaemia, and to the different criteria for diagnosing cell death. Using rabbit bone and a technique of in vitro ischaemia at 37 degrees C, we have shown by electron microscopy that, after up to two hours, the changes which occur are probably reversible; after four hours, the cells were irreversibly damaged. This difference could not be detected by light microscopy. After 24 hours of ischaemia, most lacunae were empty or contained only osteocyte debris. We conclude that osteocytes suffer irreversible damage after in vitro ischaemia of about two hours, which is much the same response as that of most other mammalian cells

1. A patient with complete ischaemia of the muscles of the calf and anterior compartment of the leg is described. 2. In diagnosis, tenseness of the calf, equinus and pain on attempted dorsiflexion of the ankle are most important. 3. Peripheral pulses may be present and do not contra-indicate decompression by operation to prevent ischaemia

1. The frequency of variable degrees of ischaemia of soft tissue in closed tibial and fibular shaft fractures is emphasised. 2. Two cases with ischaemia of calf musculature are described. 3. A follow-up study of 100 cases of closed tibial shaft fractures is analysed; ten patients were found to be affected. 4. The anatomical and pathological changes are discussed. 5. A plea is made for early surgical exploration in cases manifesting signs of ischaemia

A model of tourniquet ischaemia was developed in the hind limb of the rat, and the metabolic changes that occurred in the calf muscles were monitored by the non-invasive technique of phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. During ischaemia the intramyocellular pH became acidic as the level of phosphocreatine declined and that of inorganic phosphate rose. Phosphocreatine was no longer detectable after approximately 2 hours and ATP was depleted after approximately 3.5 hours. Metabolic recovery was rapid (1 hour) if ATP was present when the tourniquet was released but was prolonged (3 or more hours) if ATP was depleted. Hourly release of the tourniquet for 10 minutes ensured the maintenance of ATP and rapid metabolic recovery. Release for intervals of only 5 minutes did not have the same protective effect and in fact worsened tissue pH during the period of tourniquet ischaemia. Heparin and corticosteroids were without effect during and after periods of tourniquet ischaemia

A series of 26 children was referred to our specialist unit with a ‘pink pulseless hand’ following a supracondylar fracture of the distal humerus after a mean period of three months (4 days to 12 months) except for one referred after almost three years. They were followed up for a mean of 15.5 years (4 to 26). The neurovascular injuries and resulting impairment in function and salvage procedures were recorded. The mean age at presentation was 8.6 years (2 to 12). There were eight girls and 18 boys. Only four of the 26 patients had undergone immediate surgical exploration before referral and three of these four had a satisfactory outcome. In one child the brachial artery had been explored unsuccessfully at 48 hours. As a result 23 of the 26 children presented with established ischaemic contracture of the forearm and hand. Two responded to conservative stretching. In the remaining 21 the antecubital fossa was explored. The aim of surgery was to try to improve the function of the hand and forearm, to assess nerve, vessel and muscle damage, to relieve entrapment and to minimise future disturbance of growth. Based on our results we recommend urgent exploration of the vessels and nerves in a child with a ‘pink pulseless hand’, not relieved by reduction of a supracondylar fracture of the distal humerus and presenting with persistent and increasing pain suggestive of a deepening nerve lesion and critical ischaemia

Peripheral limb ischaemia is rare in children. We have treated only 12 infants and children with this condition in the past 15 years at the Royal Hospital for Sick Children in Glasgow. There were nine neonates and three older children. Most were suffering from life-threatening illnesses or severe infection. Two were born with ischaemic arms with no apparent cause. We have analysed the factors leading to ischaemia, the outcome of the initial treatment and the later orthopaedic problems. Two required amputation of both legs, one of an arm, two of feet and one of toes. Two had skin grafts. All surgery was performed after demarcation was well established and delayed closure was used after amputation. Five children developed limb-length discrepancy or an angular deformity. To date two have required additional corrective surgery

A case is reported of fracture of the tibia in a haemophiliac, complicated by severe ischaemia. Extensive decompression of the limb followed later by skin grafting was required. The haematological management which made such surgery practicable is described. It involved the use of cryoprecipitate for a period of seven weeks

1. Volkmann's ischaemia of the lower limb is more common in adults than in children and occurs with sufficient frequency after injuries of the femur, knee and leg to warrant a more determined effort to prevent it. 2. The first and most essential step is to recognise the early signs of ischaemic damage. Incision of the deep fascia may then save the threatened underlying muscle, though it may also be necessary to seek for and evacuate a haematoma beneath the muscle. When the femoral or popliteal artery is injured, exploration and repair may be imperative. 3. The treatment of established ischaemic contracture is by whatever measures are necessary to correct the deformity. These are lengthening of shortened tendons, or excision of them if they are involved in dense fibrosis at the periphery of the ischaemic mass; and excision of all totally destroyed muscle. Amputation may be necessary

1. A bilateral case of chronic intermittent ischaemia of the soleus muscle within its fascial compartment is described in a dental surgeon aged twenty-seven. 2. Symptoms were promptly relieved by decompression. 3. The mechanism of the condition is compared with that of the anterior tibial syndrome

Between March 1993 and February 1999, 14 children aged from eight months to 14.75 years were admitted to the paediatric intensive-care unit with meningococcal septicaemia in association with severe peripheral ischaemia. Of these, 13 were operated upon, eight of whom had early fasciotomies. Five children died. Of the nine survivors, one had no amputations while in the other eight 14 limb segments were amputated. We review the case histories and propose a protocol for the early management of these children

The protective effect of local hypothermia was studied in pig's limbs made ischaemic by long, repeated application of a pneumatic tourniquet. Twenty-one Landrace pigs were anaesthetised on two separate occasions six days apart and a pneumatic tourniquet at 500 mmHg pressure was applied to the same forelimb for three and two hours respectively. Ten of the pigs had local hypothermia from cold gel packs placed around the limb during the first tourniquet application; the other 11 had the ischaemic limb exposed to room temperature. In comparison with the normothermic limbs, the hypothermic ischaemic limbs had significant slowing of metabolism. The hypothermic limbs also showed less inflammatory response and a faster rate of recovery, both immediately after removal of the tourniquet, and by the end of the experiment, 10 days after the first tourniquet. Local hypothermia produced by this technique was shown to be safe and effective, while appearing to protect muscles exposed to prolonged tourniquet-induced ischaemia

Aims

The ‘pink, pulseless hand’ is often used to describe the clinical situation in which a child with a supracondylar fracture of the humerus has normal distal perfusion in the absence of a palpable peripheral pulse. The management guidelines are based on the assessment of perfusion, which is difficult to undertake and poorly evaluated objectively. The aim of this study was to review the available literature in order to explore the techniques available for the preoperative clinical assessment of perfusion in these patients and to evaluate the clinical implications.

The predictive value of the pedal transcutaneous oxygen tension (tcPO2) and of the distal systolic blood pressure (SBP) in forecasting the necessity for later amputation has been studied in 26 patients suffering from severe chronic ischaemia of the lower limbs. In all these patients vascular surgery had failed or not been possible, and they were threatened by amputation; they suffered from trophic lesions, or pain at rest, or both. The great toe SBP averaged 10 mmHg (range 0 to 60 mmHg) and the pedal tcPO2 10 mmHg (range 2 to 45 mmHg). After six minutes of oxygen inhalation there was an increase in pedal tcPO2 of 9 mmHg (0 to 50 mmHg). After a follow-up period averaging 7 months (range 10 days to 13 months), 13 patients underwent an amputation and nine (five of whom had been amputated) died. The great toe SBP in the patients who required amputation was initially lower than in those who did not. The pedal tcPO2 also was lower in amputated than in non-amputated patients. There was no amputation in the group showing an increase of at least 10 mmHg after six minutes of oxygen inhalation; and conversely, all patients in whom the pedal tcPO2 increased less than 10 mmHg were amputated. Thus increase in the pedal tcPO2 after oxygen inhalation appears the best criterion for estimating the prognosis of severely ischaemic limbs

Popliteal artery injury (PAI) is a feared complication during knee replacement. Our aim was to investigate those injuries that occurred in association with knee replacement in terms of the type of injury, treatment and outcomes. From our national vascular registry (Swedvasc) and the Swedish Patient Insurance databases a total of 32 cases were identified. Prospective data from the registries was supplemented with case-records, including long-term follow-up. We estimated the incidence during 1998 to 2010 to be 0.017%. In our series of 32 patients with PAI occurring between 1987 and 2011, 25 (78%) were due to penetrating trauma and seven were caused by blunt trauma. The patients presented in three ways: bleeding (14), ischaemia (7) and false aneurysm formation (11), and five occurred during revision surgery. A total of 12 injuries were detected intra-operatively, eight within 24 hours (3 to 24) and 12 at more than 24 hours post-operatively (2 to 90 days). Treatment comprised open surgery in 28 patients. Patency of the vascular repair at 30 days was 97% (31 of 32, one amputation). At the time of follow-up (median 546 days, mean 677 days (24 to 1251)), 25 patients had residual symptoms. Of seven patients with a complete recovery, six had had an early diagnosis of the PAI during the procedure, and were treated by a vascular surgeon in the same hospital. PAI is a rare adverse event during knee replacement surgery. The outcome following such events is often adversely affected by diagnostic and therapeutic delay. Bleeding and false aneurysm were the most common clinical presentations. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1645–9

1. Experience with twelve cases of arterial trauma are presented.

2. Six limbs were amputated and six limbs saved.

3. Delay in effective treatment was the major cause of failure to save the limb.

4. Five types of limb injury involving vessels are described.