This review of the literature presents the current understanding of Scheuermann’s kyphosis and investigates the controversies concerning conservative and surgical treatment. There is considerable debate regarding the pathogenesis, natural history and treatment of this condition. A benign prognosis with settling of symptoms and stabilisation of the deformity at skeletal maturity is expected in most patients. Observation and programmes of exercise are appropriate for mild, flexible, non-progressive deformities. Bracing is indicated for a moderate deformity which spans several levels and retains flexibility in motivated patients who have significant remaining spinal growth.

The loss of some correction after the completion of bracing with recurrent anterior vertebral wedging has been reported in approximately one-third of patients. Surgical correction with instrumented spinal fusion is indicated for a severe kyphosis which carries a risk of progression beyond the end of growth causing cosmetic deformity, back pain and neurological complications. There is no consensus on the effectiveness of different techniques and types of instrumentation. Techniques include posterior-only and combined anteroposterior spinal fusion with or without posterior osteotomies across the apex of the deformity. Current instrumented techniques include hybrid and all-pedicle screw constructs.

Instability in flexion after total knee replacement (TKR) typically occurs as a result of mismatched flexion and extension gaps. The goals of this study were to identify factors leading to instability in flexion, the degree of correction, determined radiologically, required at revision surgery, and the subsequent clinical outcomes. Between 2000 and 2010, 60 TKRs in 60 patients underwent revision for instability in flexion associated with well-fixed components. There were 33 women (55%) and 27 men (45%); their mean age was 65 years (43 to 82). Radiological measurements and the Knee Society score (KSS) were used to assess outcome after revision surgery. The mean follow-up was 3.6 years (2 to 9.8). Decreased condylar offset (p < 0.001), distalisation of the joint line (p < 0.001) and increased posterior tibial slope (p < 0.001) contributed to instability in flexion and required correction at revision to regain stability. The combined mean correction of posterior condylar offset and joint line resection was 9.5 mm, and a mean of 5° of posterior tibial slope was removed. At the most recent follow-up, there was a significant improvement in the mean KSS for the knee and function (both p < 0.001), no patient reported instability and no patient underwent further surgery for instability.

The following step-wise approach is recommended: reduction of tibial slope, correction of malalignment, and improvement of condylar offset. Additional joint line elevation is needed if the above steps do not equalise the flexion and extension gaps.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1644–8.

The June 2012 Knee Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: ACI and mosaicplasty; ACI after microfracture; exercise therapy and the degenerate medial meniscal tear; intra-articular bupivacaine or ropivacaine at knee arthroscopy; lateral trochlear inclination and patellofemoral osteoarthritis; bone loss and ACL reconstruction; assessing stability using the contralateral knee; tranexamic acid and a useful review of knee replacement.

Injury to the sciatic nerve is one of the more serious complications of acetabular fracture and traumatic dislocation of the hip, both in the short and long term. We have reviewed prospectively patients, treated in our unit, for acetabular fractures who had concomitant injury to the sciatic nerve, with the aim of predicting the functional outcome after these injuries.

Of 136 patients who underwent stabilisation of acetabular fractures, there were 27 (19.9%) with neurological injury. At initial presentation, 13 patients had a complete foot-drop, ten had weakness of the foot and four had burning pain and altered sensation over the dorsum of the foot. Serial electromyography (EMG) studies were performed and the degree of functional recovery was monitored using the grading system of the Medical Research Council. In nine patients with a foot-drop, there was evidence of a proximal acetabular (sciatic) and a distal knee (neck of fibula) nerve lesion, the double-crush syndrome.

At the final follow-up, clinical examination and EMG studies showed full recovery in five of the ten patients with initial muscle weakness, and complete resolution in all four patients with sensory symptoms (burning pain and hyperaesthesia). There was improvement of functional capacity (motor and sensory) in two patients who presented initially with complete foot-drop. In the remaining 11 with foot-drop at presentation, including all nine with the double-crush lesion, there was no improvement in function at a mean follow-up of 4.3 years.

We assessed hyperextension of the knee and joint laxity in 169 consecutive patients who underwent an anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction between 2000 and 2002 and correlated this with a selected number of age- and gender-matched controls. In addition, the mechanism of injury in the majority of patients was documented. Joint laxity was present in 42.6% (72 of 169) of the patients and hyperextension of the knee in 78.7% (133 of 169). All patients with joint laxity had hyperextension of their knee. In the control group only 21.5% (14 of 65) had joint laxity and 37% (24 of 65) had hyperextension of the knee. Statistical analysis showed a significant correlation for these associations. We conclude that anterior cruciate ligament injury is more common in those with joint laxity and particularly so for those with hyperextension of the knee.

We evaluated the long-term outcome of isolated endoscopically-assisted posterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in 26 patients using hamstring tendon autografts after failure of conservative management. At ten years after surgery the mean International Knee Documentation Committee subjective knee score was 87 (sd 14) of a possible 100 points. Regular participation in moderate to strenuous activities was possible for only seven patients pre-operatively; this increased to 23 patients post-operatively. The mean Lysholm score improved from 64 (sd 15) to 90 (sd 14) at ten years (p = 0.001).

At ten years endoscopic reconstruction of the posterior cruciate ligament with hamstring tendon autograft is effective in reducing knee symptoms. Of the series, 22 patients underwent radiological assessment for the development of osteoarthritis using the Kellgren-Lawrence grading scale. In four patients, grade 2 changes with loss of joint space was observed and another four patients showed osteophyte formation with moderate joint space narrowing (grade 3). These findings compared favourably with non-operatively managed injuries of the posterior cruciate ligament.

This procedure for symptomatic patients with posterior cruciate ligament laxity who have failed conservative management offers good results.

The technical advances in arthroscopic surgery of the hip, including the improved ability to manage the capsule and gain extensile exposure, have been paralleled by a growth in the number of conditions that can be addressed. This expanding list includes symptomatic labral tears, chondral lesions, injuries of the ligamentum teres, femoroacetabular impingement (FAI), capsular laxity and instability, and various extra-articular disorders, including snapping hip syndromes. With a careful diagnostic evaluation and technical execution of well-indicated procedures, arthroscopic surgery of the hip can achieve successful clinical outcomes, with predictable improvements in function and pre-injury levels of physical activity for many patients.

This paper reviews the current position in relation to the use of arthroscopy in the treatment of disorders of the hip.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:10–19.

We reviewed the outcome in 24 children with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy aged seven years or younger for whom surgery was recommended between 1999 and 2005 following gait analysis. A total of 13 children (operative group) had surgery and the remaining 11 (control group) did not, for family or administrative reasons. The operative group had at least two post-operative gait analyses at yearly intervals, with eight children having a third and six children a fourth. The control group had a second analysis after a mean interval of 1.5 years (95% confidence interval 1.1 to 1.9). In the operative group, the Gillette gait index, the ranges of movement in the lower limb joint and knee extension in stance improved following surgery, and this was maintained overall at the second post-operative analysis. The minimum knee flexion in stance in the control group increased between analyses.

These results suggest that surgical intervention in selected children can result in improvements in gait and function in the short to medium term compared with non-operative management.

In developed countries, children with cerebral palsy are treated from the time of diagnosis. This is usually not the case in developing countries where such patients often present at an age when it is traditionally believed that if walking has not already commenced, it is unlikely to. This study reports the outcome of the surgical treatment of 85 spastic diplegic patients at a mean of 8.5 years (5 to 12). All presented as untreated non-walkers and had achieved sitting balance by the age of five to six years. They underwent single-event multilevel surgery followed by physiotherapy and orthotic support. For outcome assessment, a modified functional walking scale was used at a mean of 3.5 years (2 to 5) post-operatively.

At all levels, static joint contractures had resolved almost completely. All patients improved and became walkers, 18 (21.2%) as exercise, 39 (45.9%) as household and 28 (33%) as community walkers.

This study shows that children with cerebral palsy who cannot walk and have not been treated can be helped by single-event multilevel surgery, provided that inclusion criteria are followed and a structural, supervised rehabilitation programme is in place.

We report the clinical outcome and findings at second-look arthroscopy of 216 patients (mean age 25 years (11 to 58)) who underwent anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction or augmentation. There were 73 single-bundle ACL augmentations (44 female, 29 male), 82 double-bundle ACL reconstructions (35 female, 47 male), and 61 single-bundle ACL reconstructions (34 female, 27 male).

In 94 of the 216 patients, proprioceptive function of the knee was evaluated before and 12 months after surgery using the threshold to detect passive motion test.

Second-look arthroscopy showed significantly better synovial coverage of the graft in the augmentation group (good: 60 (82%), fair: 10 (14%), poor: 3 (4%)) than in the other groups (p = 0.039). The mean side-to-side difference measured with a KT-2000 arthrometer was 0.4 mm (-3.3 to 2.9) in the augmentation group, 0.9 mm (-3.2 to 3.5) in the double-bundle group, and 1.3 mm (-2.7 to 3.9) in the single-bundle group: the result differed significantly between the augmentation and single-bundle groups (p = 0 .013). No significant difference in the Lysholm score or pivot-shift test was seen between the three groups (p = 0.09 and 0.65, respectively). In patients with good synovial coverage, three of the four measurements used revealed significant improvement in proprioceptive function (p = 0.177, 0.020, 0.034, and 0.026).

We conclude that ACL augmentation is a reasonable treatment option for patients with favourable ACL remnants.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1325–32

Lengthening of the conjoined tendon of the gastrocnemius aponeurosis and soleus fascia is frequently used in the treatment of equinus deformities in children and adults. The Vulpius procedure as described in most orthopaedic texts is a division of the conjoined tendon in the shape of an inverted V. However, transverse division was also described by Vulpius and Stoffel, and has been reported in some clinical studies.

We studied the anatomy and biomechanics of transverse division of the conjoined tendon in 12 human cadavers (24 legs). Transverse division of the conjoined tendon resulted in predictable, controlled lengthening of the gastrocsoleus muscle-tendon unit. The lengthening achieved was dependent both on the level of the cut in the conjoined tendon and division of the midline raphé. Division at a proximal level resulted in a mean lengthening of 15.2 mm (sd 2.0, (12 to 19), which increased to 17.1 mm (sd 1.8, (14 to 20) after division of the midline raphé. Division at a distal level resulted in a mean lengthening of 21.0 mm (sd 2.0, (18 to 25), which increased to 26.4 mm (sd 1.4, (24 to 29) after division of the raphé. These differences were significant (p < 0.001).

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:778–82.

We present a series of four patients with what we have termed the snapping pes syndrome. This is a painful clicking and catching experienced at the posteromedial corner of the knee when moving from flexion to extension. Clinical examination and real time ultrasound are the most useful diagnostic tools. If medical treatment is unsuccessful surgical excision of both the semitendinous and gracilis tendons is indicated for relief of persistent symptoms.

The options for treatment of the young active patient with isolated symptomatic osteoarthritis of the medial compartment and pre-existing deficiency of the anterior cruciate ligament are limited. The potential longevity of the implant and levels of activity of the patient may preclude total knee replacement, and tibial osteotomy and unicompartmental knee arthroplasty are unreliable because of the ligamentous instability. Unicompartmental knee arthroplasties tend to fail because of wear or tibial loosening resulting from eccentric loading. Therefore, we combined reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament with unicompartmental arthroplasty of the knee in 15 patients (ACLR group), and matched them with 15 patients who had undergone Oxford unicompartmental knee arthroplasty with an intact anterior cruciate ligament (ACLI group). The clinical and radiological data at a minimum of 2.5 years were compared for both groups.

The groups were well matched for age, gender and length of follow-up and had no significant differences in their pre-operative scores. At the last follow-up, the mean outcome scores for both the ACLR and ACLI groups were high (Oxford knee scores of 46 (37 to 48) and 43 (38 to 46), respectively, objective Knee Society scores of 99 (95 to 100) and 94 (82 to 100), and functional Knee Society scores of 96 and 96 (both 85 to 100). One patient in the ACLR group needed revision to a total knee replacement because of infection. No patient in either group had radiological evidence of component loosening. The radiological study showed no difference in the pattern of tibial loading between the groups.

The short-term clinical results of combined anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction and unicompartmental knee arthroplasty are excellent. The previous shortcomings of unicompartmental knee arthroplasty in the presence of deficiency of the anterior cruciate ligament appear to have been addressed with the combined procedure. This operation seems to be a viable treatment option for young active patients with symptomatic arthritis of the medial compartment, in whom the anterior cruciate ligament has been ruptured.

Injury to the sciatic nerve following closed manipulation of a dislocated total hip replacement is rare. We present such a case in an elderly patient with partial recovery following exploration and release of the nerve.

The tensile strength of the medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL), and of surgical procedures which reconstitute it, are unknown. Ten fresh cadaver knees were prepared by isolating the patella, leaving only the MPFL as its attachment to the medial femoral condyle. The MPFL was either repaired by using a Kessler suture or reconstructed using either bone anchors or one of two tendon grafting techniques. The tensile strength and the displacement to peak force of the MPFL were then measured using an Instron materials-testing machine.

The MPFL was found to have a mean tensile strength of 208 N (SD 90) at 26 mm (SD 7) of displacement. The strengths of the other techniques were: sutures alone, 37 N (SD 27); bone anchors plus sutures, 142 N (SD 39); blind-tunnel tendon graft, 126 N (SD 21); and through-tunnel tendon graft, 195 N (SD 66). The last was not significantly weaker than the MPFL itself.

Abnormal knee kinematics following reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament may exist despite an apparent resolution of tibial laxity and functional benefit. We performed upright, weight-bearing MR scans of both knees in the sagittal plane at different angles of flexion to determine the kinematics of the knee following unilateral reconstruction (n = 12). The uninjured knee acted as a control. Scans were performed pre-operatively and at three and six months post-operatively. Anteroposterior tibial laxity was determined using an arthrometer and patient function by validated questionnaires before and after reconstruction. In all the knees with deficient anterior cruciate ligaments, the tibial plateau was displaced anteriorly and internally rotated relative to the femur when compared with the control contralateral knee, particularly in extension and early flexion (mean lateral compartment displacement: extension 7.9 mm (sd 4.8), p = 0.002 and 30° flexion 5.1 mm (sd 3.6), p = 0.004). In all ten patients underwent post-operative scans. Reconstruction reduced the subluxation of the lateral tibial plateau at three months, with resolution of anterior displacement in early flexion, but not in extension (p = 0.015). At six months, the reconstructed knee again showed anterior subluxation in both the lateral (mean: extension 4.2 mm (sd 4.2), p = 0.021 and 30° flexion 3.2 mm (sd 3.3), p = 0.024) and medial compartments (extension, p = 0.049).

Our results show that despite improvement in laxity and functional benefit, abnormal knee kinematics remain at six months and actually deteriorate from three to six months following reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament.

Our aim in this retrospective study of 52 children with spastic hemiplegia was to determine the factors which affected the amount of residual pelvic rotation after single-event multilevel surgery.

The patients were divided into two groups, those who had undergone femoral derotation osteotomy and those who had not. Pelvic rotation improved significantly after surgery in the femoral osteotomy group (p < 0.001) but not in the non-femoral osteotomy group. Multiple regressions identified the following three independent variables, which significantly affected residual pelvic rotation: the performance of femoral derotation osteotomy (p = 0.049), the pre-operative pelvic rotation (p = 0.003) and the post-operative internal rotation of the hip (p = 0.001).

We concluded that there is a decrease in the amount of pelvic rotation after single-event multilevel surgery with femoral derotation osteotomy. However, some residual rotation may persist when patients have severe rotation before surgery.

The February 2014 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: flexible plasters; dual 8-plate or ablation for knee epiphysiodesis; ultrasounds for pulled elbow; leg length without the radiation; Boyd amputation in limb deficiencies; gold standard club foot treatment; quadrupled semitendinosis graft effective in paediatric ACL reconstruction; and predicting complications following cerebral palsy hip reconstruction