Aims

Temporary epiphysiodesis (ED) is commonly applied in children and adolescents to treat leg length discrepancies (LLDs) and tall stature. Traditional Blount staples or modern two-hole plates are used in clinical practice. However, they require accurate planning, precise surgical techniques, and attentive follow-up to achieve the desired outcome without complications. This study reports the results of ED using a novel rigid staple (RigidTack) incorporating safety, as well as technical and procedural success according to the idea, development, evaluation, assessment, long-term (IDEAL) study framework.

We report a case of spontaneous physeal growth arrest of the distal femur in a nine-year-old child with Ewing’s sarcoma of the proximal femur treated with chemotherapy and endoprosthetic replacement. Owing to the extent of disuse osteoporosis at the time of surgery, the entire intramedullary canal up to the distal femoral physis was filled with cement. Three years later, the femur remained at its pre-operative length of 19 cm. Pre-operative calculations of further growth failed to account for the growth arrest, and the initial expandable growing prosthesis inserted has been revised to a longer one in order to address the leg-length discrepancy. To our knowledge, this is the only reported case of distal femoral physeal growth arrest following cemented endoprosthetic replacement of the proximal femur

A review is presented of 13 young patients with congenital scoliosis who were treated by epiphysiodesis of part of the vertebral bodies combined with posterior fusion, both on the convex side; the plan was to arrest growth on the convexity which, combined with growth of the concave side, would result in progressive correction of the curve. The first patient was operated on at the age of four years and has now reached skeletal maturity with complete correction of her curve. Several others, still growing, are showing progressive correction. Only three curves, in which kyphosis was more severe than scoliosis, have deteriorated since operation. Although full assessment must await skeletal maturity of all the patients, this approach appears to have sufficient potential to justify an early report

We reviewed 13 children with partial growth plate arrest who had been treated by epiphyseolysis. Eight were followed to skeletal maturity and five for at least four years. In three cases the affected limb was restored to normal and in five the operation was successful in improving angular deformity and leg length discrepancy such that further surgery was not necessary. In the five failures, angular deformity had progressed or limb length discrepancy had increased. There were no significant complications and the procedure did not prevent subsequent osteotomy or limb length equalisation. Epiphyseolysis was most effective for small bars and those affecting only the central area of the plate

Salter-Harris II fractures of the distal tibia affect children frequently, and when they are displaced present a treatment dilemma. Treatment primarily aims to restore alignment and prevent premature physeal closure, as this can lead to angular deformity, limb length difference, or both. Current literature is of poor methodological quality and is contradictory as to whether conservative or surgical management is superior in avoiding complications and adverse outcomes. A state of clinical equipoise exists regarding whether displaced distal tibial Salter-Harris II fractures in children should be treated with surgery to achieve anatomical reduction, or whether cast treatment alone will lead to a satisfactory outcome. Systematic review and meta-analysis has concluded that high-quality prospective multicentre research is needed to answer this question. The Outcomes of Displaced Distal tibial fractures: Surgery Or Casts in KidS (ODD SOCKS) trial, funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research, aims to provide this high-quality research in order to answer this question, which has been identified as a top-five research priority by the British Society for Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(5):471–473.

We report two cases of deformity of the ankle caused by physeal damage secondary to extravasation of an intravenous infusion in infancy. The possible mechanisms of injury to the physis are discussed.

The April 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup. 360. looks at: Ultrasonography or radiography for suspected paediatric distal forearm fractures?; Implant density in scoliosis: an important variable?; Gait after paediatric femoral shaft fracture treated with intramedullary nail fixation: a longitudinal prospective study; The opioid dilemma: navigating pain management for children’s bone fractures; 12- to 20-year follow-up of Dega acetabuloplasty in patients with developmental dysplasia of the hip; Physeal fractures of the distal ulna: incidence and risk factors for premature growth arrest; Analysis of growth after transphyseal anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in children; Management of lateral condyle humeral fracture associated with elbow dislocation in children: a retrospective international multicentre cohort study

McFarland fractures of the medial malleolus in children, also classified as Salter–Harris Type III and IV fractures, are associated with a high incidence of premature growth plate arrest. In order to identify prognostic factors for the development of complications we reviewed 20 children with a McFarland fracture that was treated surgically, at a mean follow-up of 8.9 years (3.5 to 17.4). Seven children (35%) developed premature growth arrest with angular deformity. The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale for all patients was 98.3 (87 to 100) and the mean modified Weber protocol was 1.15 (0 to 5). There was a significant correlation between initial displacement (p = 0.004) and operative delay (p = 0.007) with premature growth arrest. Both risk factors act independently and additively, such that all children with both risk factors developed premature arrest whereas children with no risk factor did not. We recommend that fractures of the medial malleolus in children should be treated by anatomical reduction and screw fixation within one day of injury. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:419–23

Septicaemia resulting from meningococcal infection is a devastating illness affecting children. Those who survive can develop late orthopaedic sequelae from growth plate arrests, with resultant complex deformities. Our aim in this study was to review the case histories of a series of patients with late orthopaedic sequelae, all treated by the senior author (CFB). We also describe a treatment strategy to address the multiple deformities that may occur in these patients. Between 1997 and 2009, ten patients (seven girls and three boys) were treated for late orthopaedic sequelae following meningococcal septicaemia. All had involvement of the lower limbs, and one also had involvement of the upper limbs. Each patient had a median of three operations (one to nine). Methods of treatment included a combination of angular deformity correction, limb lengthening and epiphysiodesis. All patients were skeletally mature at the final follow-up. One patient with bilateral below-knee amputations had satisfactory correction of her right amputation stump deformity, and has complete ablation of both her proximal tibial growth plates. In eight patients length discrepancy in the lower limb was corrected to within 1 cm, with normalisation of the mechanical axis of the lower limb. Meningococcal septicaemia can lead to late orthopaedic sequelae due to growth plate arrests. Central growth plate arrests lead to limb-length discrepancy and the need for lengthening procedures, and peripheral growth plate arrests lead to angular deformities requiring corrective osteotomies and ablation of the damaged physis. In addition, limb amputations may be necessary and there may be altered growth of the stump requiring further surgery. Long-term follow-up of these patients is essential to recognise and treat any recurrence of deformity

Distal femoral physeal fractures in children have a high incidence of physeal arrest, occurring in a mean of 40% of cases. The underlying nature of the distal femoral physis may be the primary cause, but other factors have been postulated to contribute to the formation of a physeal bar. The purpose of this study was to assess the significance of contributing factors to physeal bar formation, in particular the use of percutaneous pins across the physis. We reviewed 55 patients with a median age of ten years (3 to 13), who had sustained displaced distal femoral physeal fractures. Most (40 of 55) were treated with percutaneous pinning after reduction, four were treated with screws and 11 with plaster. A total of 40 patients were assessed clinically and radiologically after skeletal maturity or at the time of formation of a bar. The remaining 15 were followed up for a minimum of two years. Formation of a physeal bar occurred in 12 (21.8%) patients, with the rate rising to 30.6% in patients with high-energy injuries compared with 5.3% in those with low-energy injuries. There was a significant trend for physeal arrest according to increasing severity using the Salter-Harris classification. Percutaneous smooth pins across the physis were not statistically associated with growth arrest

The management of spinal deformity in children with univentricular cardiac pathology poses significant challenges to the surgical and anaesthetic teams. To date, only posterior instrumented fusion techniques have been used in these children and these are associated with a high rate of complications. We reviewed our experience of both growing rod instrumentation and posterior instrumented fusion in children with a univentricular circulation. Six children underwent spinal corrective surgery, two with cavopulmonary shunts and four following completion of a Fontan procedure. Three underwent growing rod instrumentation, two had a posterior fusion and one had spinal growth arrest. There were no complications following surgery, and the children undergoing growing rod instrumentation were successfully lengthened. We noted a trend for greater blood loss and haemodynamic instability in those whose surgery was undertaken following completion of a Fontan procedure. At a median follow-up of 87.6 months (interquartile range (IQR) 62.9 to 96.5) the median correction of deformity was 24.2% (64.5° (IQR 46° to 80°) vs 50.5° (IQR 36° to 63°)). We believe that early surgical intervention with growing rod instrumentation systems allows staged correction of the spinal deformity and reduces the haemodynamic insult to these physiologically compromised children. Due to the haemodynamic changes that occur with the completed Fontan circulation, the initial scoliosis surgery should ideally be undertaken when in the cavopulmonary shunt stage. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:94–9

Objectives. The aim of this experimental study on New Zealand’s white rabbits was to investigate the transplantation of autogenous growth plate cells in order to treat the injured growth plate. They were assessed in terms of measurements of radiological tibial varus and histological characteristics. . Methods. An experimental model of plate growth medial partial resection of the tibia in 14 New Zealand white rabbits was created. During this surgical procedure the plate growth cells were collected and cultured. While the second surgery was being performed, the autologous cultured growth plate cells were grafted at the right tibia, whereas the left tibia was used as a control group. . Results. Histological examinations showed that the grafted right tibia presented the regular shape of the plate growth with hypertrophic maturation, chondrocyte columniation and endochondral calcification. Radiological study shows that the mean tibial deformity at the left angle was 20.29° (6.25 to 33) and 7.21° (5 to 10) in the right angle. . Conclusion. This study has demonstrated that grafting of autogenous cultured growth plate cells into a defect of the medial aspect of the proximal tibial physis can prevent bone bridge formation, growth arrest and the development of varus deformity. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2014;3:310–16

Between 1990 and 2001, 24 children aged between 15 months and 11 years presented with late orthopaedic sequelae after meningococcal septicaemia. The median time to presentation was 32 months (12 to 119) after the acute phase of the disease. The reasons for referral included angular deformity, limb-length discrepancy, joint contracture and problems with prosthetic fitting. Angular deformity with or without limb-length discrepancy was the most common presentation. Partial growth arrest was the cause of the angular deformity. Multiple growth-plate involvement occurred in 14 children. The lower limbs were affected much more often than the upper. Twenty-three children underwent operations for realignment of the mechanical axis and limb-length equalisation. In 15 patients with angular deformity around the knee the deformity recurred. As a result we recommend performing a realignment procedure with epiphysiodesis of the remaining growth plate when correcting angular deformities

Permanent growth arrest of the longer bone is an option in the treatment of minor leg-length discrepancies. The use of a tension band plating technique to produce a temporary epiphysiodesis is appealing as it avoids the need for accurate timing of the procedure in relation to remaining growth. We performed an animal study to establish if control of growth in a long bone is possible with tension band plating. Animals (pigs) were randomised to temporary epiphysiodesis on either the right or left tibia. Implants were removed after ten weeks. Both tibiae were examined using MRI at baseline, and after ten and 15 weeks. The median interphyseal distance was significantly shorter on the treated tibiae after both ten weeks (p = 0.04) and 15 weeks (p = 0.04). On T. 1. -weighted images the metaphyseal water content was significantly reduced after ten weeks on the treated side (p = 0.04) but returned to values comparable with the untreated side at 15 weeks (p = 0.14). Return of growth was observed in all animals after removal of implants. Temporary epiphysiodesis can be obtained using tension band plating. The technique is not yet in common clinical practice but might avoid the need for the accurate timing of epiphysiodesis. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:855–60

Patellar instability most frequently presents during adolescence. Congenital and infantile dislocation of the patella is a distinct entity from adolescent instability and measurable abnormalities may be present at birth. In the normal patellofemoral joint an increase in quadriceps angle and patellar height are matched by an increase in trochlear depth as the joint matures. Adolescent instability may herald a lifelong condition leading to chronic disability and arthritis. Restoring normal anatomy by trochleoplasty, tibial tubercle transfer or medial patellofemoral ligament (MPFL) reconstruction in the young adult prevents further instability. Although these techniques are proven in the young adult, they may cause growth arrest and deformity where the physis is open. A vigorous non-operative strategy may permit delay of surgery until growth is complete. Where non-operative treatment has failed a modified MPFL reconstruction may be performed to maintain stability until physeal closure permits anatomical reconstruction. If significant growth remains an extraosseous reconstruction of the MPFL may impart the lowest risk to the physis. If minor growth remains image intensifier guided placement of femoral intraosseous fixation may impart a small, but acceptable, risk to the physis. This paper presents and discusses the literature relating to adolescent instability and provides a framework for management of these patients. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:159–70

The potential harm to the growth plate following reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament in skeletally-immature patients is well documented, but we are not aware of literature on the subject of the fate of the graft itself. We have reviewed five adolescent males who underwent reconstruction of the ligament with four-strand hamstring grafts using MR images taken at a mean of 34.6 months (18 to 58) from the time of operation. The changes in dimension of the graft were measured and compared with those taken at the original operation. No growth arrest was seen on radiological or clinical measurement of leg-length discrepancy, nor was there any soft-tissue contracture. All the patients regained their pre-injury level of activity, including elite-level sport in three. The patients grew by a mean of 17.3 cm (14 to 24). The diameter of the grafts did not change despite large increases in length (mean 42%; 33% to 57%). Most of the gain in length was on the femoral side. Large changes in the length of the grafts were seen. There is a considerable increase in the size of the graft, so some neogenesis must occur; the graft must grow

Although supracondylar fracture is a very common elbow injury in childhood, there is no consensus on the timing of surgery, approach for open reduction and positioning of fixation wires. We report our ten-year experience between 1993 and 2003 in 291 children. Most fractures (285; 98%) were extension injuries, mainly Gartland types II (73; 25%) and III (163; 56%). Six (2%) were open fractures and a neurovascular deficit was seen in 12 (4%) patients. Of the 236 children (81%) who required an operation, 181 (77%) were taken to theatre on the day of admission. Most (177; 75%) of the operations were performed by specialist registrars. Fixation was by crossed Kirschner wires in 158 of 186 (85%) patients and open reduction was necessary in 52 (22%). A post-operative neurological deficit was seen in nine patients (4%) and three (1%) required exploration of the ulnar nerve. Only 22 (4%) patients had a long-term deformity, nine (3%) from malreduction and three (1%) because of growth arrest, but corrective surgery for functional limitation was required in only three (1%) patients

Severe kypho-scoliosis, lateral curvature and lordo-scoliosis are ultimately caused by disturbance of vertebral growth. The results of treatment by destroying the growth potential opposite the area of growth inhibition have been encouraging. When the operation has been adequate further deterioration has been prevented; in younger children there has been improvement with further growth. It is important that the growth arrest should be at the right site and that it should be sufficiently extensive. Accurate pre-operative diagnosis of the type and extent of the curve is important

The December 2023 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: A comprehensive nonoperative treatment protocol for developmental dysplasia of the hip in infants; How common are refractures in childhood?; Femoral nailing for paediatric femoral shaft fracture in children aged eight to ten years; Who benefits from allowing the physis to grow in slipped capital femoral epiphysis?; Paediatric patients with an extremity bone tumour: a secondary analysis of the PARITY trial data; Split tibial tendon transfers in cerebral palsy equinovarus foot deformities; Liposomal bupivacaine nerve block: an answer to opioid use?; Correction with distal femoral transphyseal screws in hemiepiphysiodesis for coronal-plane knee deformity.

We report our results in 24 children with malignant primary bone tumours of the distal femur treated with a Stanmore extendible endoprosthesis (SEER). This consists of a femoral component that can be lengthened, a constrained knee and an uncemented sliding tibial component which crosses the proximal tibial physeal plate perpendicularly. The average age of the patients at diagnosis was ten years and the mean follow-up was 4.7 years (2.5 to 7.9). The mean growth of the affected tibia was 76% (18 to 136) and of the fibula 83% (15 to 750) of the growth of the unaffected limb. Measurement of growth arrest lines showed that the mean growth of the proximal tibial physis on the affected side was 69% (43 to 100) of that of the normal side. The great variability in the growth of the physis cannot yet be explained

We report the ulnar impingement syndrome, which is caused by a shortened ulna impinging on the distal radius and causing a painful, disabling pseudarthrosis. Of the 11 cases reported, 10 were due to excision of the distal ulna after injury to the wrist; the other was a result of a growth arrest after a fracture of the distal ulna in a child. The symptoms are a painful, clicking wrist and a weak grip; clinical examination reveals a narrow wrist with pain on compression of the radius and ulna and on forced supination. Radiographs in the majority of cases show scalloping of the distal radius corresponding to the site of impingement. The mechanism by which ulnar impingement occurs after radio-ulnar convergence is illustrated. The plan of management for the young patient with traumatic dysfunction of the distal radio-ulnar joint is discussed; excision of the lower end of the ulna is not advised in such patients

Distal tibial physeal fractures are the second most common growth plate injury and the most common cause of growth arrest and deformity. This study assesses the accuracy of pre-operative planning for placement of the screws in these fractures using either standard radiographs or CT scans. We studied 62 consecutive physeal fractures over a period of four years. An outline of a single cut of the CT scan was used for each patient. An ideal position for the screw was determined as being perpendicular to and at the midpoint of the fracture. The difference in entry point and direction of the screw between the ideal and the observers’ assessments were compared using the paired Student’s t-test. There was a statistically significant improvement (p < 0.0001) in the accuracy of the point of insertion and the direction of the screw on the pre-operative plan when CT scans were used rather than plain radiographs. We would, therefore, recommend that CT scans are routinely used in the pre-operative assessment and treatment of distal tibial physeal fractures

Torsional deformities of the tibia are common in children, but in the majority both the torsion and the associated disturbance of gait resolve without intervention. There are, however, a significant number of children and adults with neuromuscular disease who present with pathological tibial torsion, which may require surgical correction. We conducted a prospective study in two centres, to investigate the outcome of supramalleolar derotation osteotomy of the tibia, using internal fixation with the AO-ASIF T plate. A range of outcome variables was collected, prospectively, for 57 patients (91 osteotomies), including thigh foot angle, foot progression angle, post-operative complications and serial radiographs. Correction of thigh foot angle and foot progression angle was satisfactory in all patients. Three major complications were recorded; one aseptic nonunion, one fracture through the osteotomy site after removal of the plate and one distal tibial growth arrest. We found that supramalleolar derotation osteotomy of the tibia, with AO-ASIF T plate fixation is an effective method for the correction of torsional deformities of the tibia and the associated disturbances of gait in children and adults with neuromuscular disease, with a 5.3% risk of major complications

Aims. Computer hexapod assisted orthopaedic surgery (CHAOS), is a method to achieve the intra-operative correction of long bone deformities using a hexapod external fixator before definitive internal fixation with minimally invasive stabilisation techniques. The aims of this study were to determine the reliability of this method in a consecutive case series of patients undergoing femoral deformity correction, with a minimum six-month follow-up, to assess the complications and to define the ideal group of patients for whom this treatment is appropriate. Patients and Methods. The medical records and radiographs of all patients who underwent CHAOS for femoral deformity at our institution between 2005 and 2011 were retrospectively reviewed. Records were available for all 55 consecutive procedures undertaken in 49 patients with a mean age of 35.6 years (10.9 to 75.3) at the time of surgery. Results. Patients were assessed at a mean interval of 44 months (6 to 90) following surgery. The indications were broad; the most common were vitamin D resistant rickets (n = 10), growth plate arrest (n = 6) and post-traumatic deformity (n = 20). Multi-planar correction was required in 33 cases. A single level osteotomy was performed in 43 cases. Locking plates were used to stabilise the osteotomy in 33 cases and intramedullary nails in the remainder. Complications included two nonunions, one death, one below-knee deep vein thrombosis, one deep infection and one revision procedure due to initial under-correction. There were no neurovascular injuries or incidence of compartment syndrome. Conclusion. This is the largest reported series of femoral deformity corrections using the CHAOS technique. This series demonstrates that precise intra-operative realignment is possible with a hexapod external fixator prior to definitive stabilisation with contemporary internal fixation. This combination allows reproducible correction of complex femoral deformity from a wide variety of diagnoses and age range with a low complication rate. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:283–8

Aims

The aim of this retrospective cohort study was to assess and investigate the safety and efficacy of using a distal tibial osteotomy compared to proximal osteotomy for limb lengthening in children.

The June 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: Proximal femoral unicameral bone cysts: is ESIN the answer?; Hybrid-mesh casts in the conservative management of paediatric supracondylar humeral fractures: a randomized controlled trial; Rate and risk factors for contralateral slippage in adolescents treated for slipped capital femoral epiphysis; CRP predicts the need to escalate care after initial debridement for musculoskeletal infection; Genu valgum in paediatric patients presenting with patellofemoral instability; Nusinersen therapy changed the natural course of spinal muscular atrophy type 1: what about spine and hip?; The necessity of ulnar nerve exploration and translocation in open reduction of medial humeral epicondyle fractures in children.

The February 2024 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: Hip impingement after in situ pinning causes decreased flexion and forced external rotation in flexion on 3D-CT; Triplane ankle fracture patterns in paediatric patients; Improved forearm rotation even after early conversion to below-elbow; Selective dorsal rhizotomy and cerebral palsy (CP) hip displacement; Abduction bracing following anterior open reduction for developmental dysplasia of the hip does not improve residual dysplasia or reduce secondary surgery; 40% risk of later total hip arthroplasty for in situ slipped capital femoral epiphysis (SCFE) pinning; Does brace treatment following closed reduction of developmental dysplasia of the hip improve acetabular coverage?; Waterproof hip spica casts for paediatric femur fractures.

Aims

The aim of this study was to determine the consensus best practice approach for the investigation and management of children (aged 0 to 15 years) in the UK with musculoskeletal infection (including septic arthritis, osteomyelitis, pyomyositis, tenosynovitis, fasciitis, and discitis). This consensus can then be used to ensure consistent, safe care for children in UK hospitals and those elsewhere with similar healthcare systems.

Paediatric bone sarcomas are a dual challenge for orthopaedic surgeons in terms of tumour resection and reconstruction, as it is important to minimize functional and growth problems without compromising survival rates. Cañadell’s technique consists of a Type I epiphysiolysis performed using continuous distraction by an external fixator prior to resection. It was designed to achieve a safe margin due to the ability of the physeal cartilage to be a barrier to tumour spread in some situations, avoiding the need for articular reconstruction, and preserving the growth capacity most of the times. Despite initial doubts raised in the scientific community, this technique is now widely used in many countries for the treatment of metaphyseal paediatric bone sarcomas. This annotation highlights the importance of Cañadell’s work and reviews the experience of applying it to bone sarcoma patients over the last 40 years.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(1):11–16.

Aims

Temporary hemiepiphysiodesis (HED) is applied to children and adolescents to correct angular deformities (ADs) in long bones through guided growth. Traditional Blount staples or two-hole plates are mainly used for this indication. Despite precise surgical techniques and attentive postoperative follow-up, implant-associated complications are frequently described. To address these pitfalls, a flexible staple was developed to combine the advantages of the established implants. This study provides the first results of guided growth using the new implant and compares these with the established two-hole plates and Blount staples.

Aims

After a few passages of in vitro culture, primary human articular chondrocytes undergo senescence and loss of their phenotype. Most of the available chondrocyte cell lines have been obtained from cartilage tissues different from diarthrodial joints, and their utility for osteoarthritis (OA) research is reduced. Thus, the goal of this research was the development of immortalized chondrocyte cell lines proceeded from the articular cartilage of patients with and without OA.

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This study aimed, through bioinformatics analysis, to identify the potential diagnostic markers of osteoarthritis, and analyze the role of immune infiltration in synovial tissue.

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Osteoarthritis (OA) is a common degenerative joint disease characterized by chronic inflammatory articular cartilage degradation. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been previously indicated to play an important role in inflammation-related diseases. Herein, the current study set out to explore the involvement of lncRNA H19 in OA.

Aims

This observational study examines the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic upon the paediatric trauma burden of a district general hospital. We aim to compare the nature and volume of the paediatric trauma during the first 2020 UK lockdown period with the same period in 2019.

Osteoarthritis (OA), one of the most common motor system disorders, is a degenerative disease involving progressive joint destruction caused by a variety of factors. At present, OA has become the fourth most common cause of disability in the world. However, the pathogenesis of OA is complex and has not yet been clarified. Long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) refers to a group of RNAs more than 200 nucleotides in length with limited protein-coding potential, which have a wide range of biological functions including regulating transcriptional patterns and protein activity, as well as binding to form endogenous small interference RNAs (siRNAs) and natural microRNA (miRNA) molecular sponges. In recent years, a large number of lncRNAs have been found to be differentially expressed in a variety of pathological processes of OA, including extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, synovial inflammation, chondrocyte apoptosis, and angiogenesis. Obviously, lncRNAs play important roles in regulating gene expression, maintaining the phenotype of cartilage and synovial cells, and the stability of the intra-articular environment. This article reviews the results of the latest research into the role of lncRNAs in a variety of pathological processes of OA, in order to provide a new direction for the study of OA pathogenesis and a new target for prevention and treatment.

Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2021;10(2):122–133.

Aims

Spinal fusion remains the gold standard in the treatment of idiopathic scoliosis. However, anterior vertebral body tethering (AVBT) is gaining widespread interest, despite the limited data on its efficacy. The aim of our study was to determine the clinical efficacy of AVBT in skeletally immature patients with idiopathic scoliosis.

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The Fassier Duval (FD) rod is a third-generation telescopic implant for children with osteogenesis imperfecta (OI). Threaded fixation enables proximal insertion without opening the knee or ankle joint. We have reviewed our combined two-centre experience with this implant.

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The Precice intramedullary limb-lengthening system has demonstrated significant benefits over external fixation lengthening methods, leading to a paradigm shift in limb lengthening. This study compares outcomes following antegrade and retrograde femoral lengthening in both adolescent and adult patients.

Aims

Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent joint disease. However, the specific and definitive genetic mechanisms of OA are still unclear.

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The aim of this study was to report the clinical, functional and radiological outcomes of children and adolescents with tibial fractures treated using the Ilizarov method.

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The aim of this study was to report the outcome of femoral condylar fresh osteochondral allografts (FOCA) with concomitant realignment osteotomy with a focus on graft survivorship, complications, reoperation, and function.

Aims

Double-level lengthening, bone transport, and bifocal compression-distraction are commonly undertaken using Ilizarov or other fixators. We performed double-level fixator-assisted nailing, mainly for the correction of deformity and lengthening in the same segment, using a straight intramedullary nail to reduce the time in a fixator.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to identify key pathological genes in osteoarthritis (OA).

Objectives

Legg–Calvé–Perthes’ disease (LCP) is an idiopathic osteonecrosis of the femoral head that is most common in children between four and eight years old. The factors that lead to the onset of LCP are still unclear; however, it is believed that interruption of the blood supply to the developing epiphysis is an important factor in the development of the condition.

Aims

We present a retrospective review of patients treated with extracorporeally irradiated allografts for primary and secondary bone tumours with the mid- and long-term survivorship and the functional and radiographic outcomes.

Objectives

Oxidative stress plays a major role in the onset and progression of involutional osteoporosis. However, classical antioxidants fail to restore osteoblast function. Interestingly, the bone anabolism of parathyroid hormone (PTH) has been shown to be associated with its ability to counteract oxidative stress in osteoblasts. The PTH counterpart in bone, which is the PTH-related protein (PTHrP), displays osteogenic actions through both its N-terminal PTH-like region and the C-terminal domain.

The mammalian growth plate is a complex structure which is essential for the elongation of long bones. However, an understanding of how the growth plate functions at the cellular level is lacking. This review, summarises the factors involved in growth-plate regulation, its failure and the consequence of injury. We also describe some of the cellular mechanisms which underpin the increase in volume of the growth-plate chondrocyte which is the major determinant of the rate and extent of bone lengthening. We show how living in situ chondrocytes can be imaged using 2-photon laser scanning microscopy to provide a quantitative analysis of their volume. This approach should give better understanding of the cellular control of bone growth in both healthy and failed growth plates.

Rebound growth after hemiepiphysiodesis may be a normal event, but little is known about its causes, incidence or factors related to its intensity. The aim of this study was to evaluate rebound growth under controlled experimental conditions.

A total of 22 six-week-old rabbits underwent a medial proximal tibial hemiepiphysiodesis using a two-hole plate and screws. Temporal growth plate arrest was maintained for three weeks, and animals were killed at intervals ranging between three days and three weeks after removal of the device. The radiological angulation of the proximal tibia was studied at weekly intervals during and after hemiepiphysiodesis. A histological study of the retrieved proximal physis of the tibia was performed.

The mean angulation achieved at three weeks was 34.7° (standard deviation (sd) 3.4), and this remained unchanged for the study period of up to two weeks. By three weeks after removal of the implant the mean angulation had dropped to 28.2° (sd 1.8) (p < 0.001). Histologically, widening of the medial side was noted during the first two weeks. By three weeks this widening had substantially disappeared and the normal columnar structure was virtually re-established.

In our rabbit model, rebound was an event of variable incidence and intensity and, when present, did not appear immediately after restoration of growth, but took some time to appear.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:862–8.

Progressive angular deformity of an extremity due to differential physeal arrest is the most common late orthopaedic sequela following meningococcal septicaemia in childhood. A total of ten patients (14 ankles) with distal tibial physeal arrest as a consequence of meningococcal septicaemia have been reviewed. Radiological analysis of their ankles has demonstrated a distinct pattern of deformity. In 13 of 14 cases the distal fibular physis was unaffected and continued distal fibular growth contributed to a varus deformity. We recommend that surgical management should take account of this consistent finding during the correction of these deformities.

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to compare the results and complications of tibial lengthening over an intramedullary nail with treatment using the traditional Ilizarov method.

Previous classification systems of failure of limb salvage focused primarily on endoprosthetic failures and lacked sufficient depth for the effective study of the causes of failure. In order to address these inadequacies, the International Society of Limb Salvage (ISOLS) formed a committee to recommend revisions of the previous systems. The purpose of this study was to report on their recommendations. The modifications were prepared using an earlier, evidence-based model with subclassification based on the existing medical literature. Subclassification for all five primary types of failure of limb salvage following endoprosthetic reconstruction were formulated and a complementary system was derived for the failure of biological reconstruction. An additional classification of failure in paediatric patients was also described.

Limb salvage surgery presents a complex array of potential mechanisms of failure, and a complete and precise classification of types of failure is required. Earlier classification systems lacked specificity, and the evidence-based system outlined here is designed to correct these weaknesses and to provide a means of reporting failures of limb salvage in order to allow the interpretation of outcome following reconstructive surgery.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:1436–40.

Arrest of growth of the distal radius is rare but will produce deformity of the wrist. We corrected angular deformity and shortening of the distal radius by epiphysiolysis and gradual lengthening without a corrective osteotomy

Aims

Our aim was to investigate the predictive factors for the development of a rebound phenomenon after temporary hemiepiphysiodesis in children with genu valgum.

Objectives

To determine the pattern of mutations of the WISP3 gene in clinically identified progressive pseudorheumatoid dysplasia (PPD) in an Indian population.

Aims

We wished to examine the effectiveness of tibial lengthening using a two ring Ilizarov frame in skeletally immature patients. This is a potentially biomechanically unstable construct which risks the loss of axial control.

We describe the technique and results of medial submuscular plating of the femur in paediatric patients and discuss its indications and limitations. Specifically, the technique is used as part of a plate-after-lengthening strategy, where the period of external fixation is reduced and the plate introduced by avoiding direct contact with the lateral entry wounds of the external fixator pins. The technique emphasises that vastus medialis is interposed between the plate and the vascular structures.

A total of 16 patients (11 male and five female, mean age 9.6 years (5 to 17)), had medial submuscular plating of the femur. All underwent distraction osteogenesis of the femur with a mean lengthening of 4.99 cm (3.2 to 12) prior to plating. All patients achieved consolidation of the regenerate without deformity. The mean follow-up was 10.5 months (7 to 15) after plating for those with plates still in situ, and 16.3 months (1 to 39) for those who subsequently had their plates removed. None developed a deep infection. In two patients a proximal screw fractured without loss of alignment; one patient sustained a traumatic fracture six months after removal of the plate.

Placing the plate on the medial side is advantageous when the external fixator is present on the lateral side, and is biomechanically optimal in the presence of a femoral defect. We conclude that medial femoral submuscular plating is a useful technique for specific indications and can be performed safely with a prior understanding of the regional anatomy.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:137–42.

Survivors of infantile meningococcal septicaemia often develop progressive skeletal deformity as a result of physeal damage at many sites, particularly in the lower limb. Distal tibial physeal arrest typically occurs with sparing of the distal fibular physis leading to a rapidly progressive varus deformity. There have been reports of isolated cases of this deformity, but to our knowledge there have been no papers which specifically describe the development of the deformity and the options for treatment.

Surgery to correct this deformity is complex because of the patient’s age, previous scarring and the multiplanar nature of the deformity. The surgical goal is to restore leg-length equality and the mechanical axis at the end of growth. Surgery should be planned and staged throughout growth in order to achieve the best functional results.

We report our experience in six patients (seven ankles) with this deformity, who were managed by corrective osteotomy using a programmable circular fixator.

Aims

We present the clinical and radiographic outcome of 81 children with Gartland type I to III supracondylar humeral fractures at a minimum follow-up of ten years (mean 12.1 years; 10.3 to 16.1) following injury.

The June 2015 Children’s orthopaedics Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: ACL reconstruction in paediatric knees; Hips, slips and cams; The adolescent clavicle; 3D fluoroscopy in DDH?; The psychiatric aspects of hip pain in adolescents; Adolescent bunions: dealer’s choice?; Medial epicondylar fractures revisited

External fixation is widely used in orthopaedic and trauma surgery. Infections around pin or wire sites, which are usually localised, non-invasive, and are easily managed, are common. Occasionally, more serious invasive complications such as necrotising fasciitis (NF) and toxic shock syndrome (TSS) may occur.

We retrospectively reviewed all patients who underwent external fixation between 1997 and 2012 in our limb lengthening and reconstruction programme. A total of eight patients (seven female and one male) with a mean age of 20 years (5 to 45) in which pin/wire track infections became limb- or life-threatening were identified. Of these, four were due to TSS and four to NF. Their management is described. A satisfactory outcome was obtained with early diagnosis and aggressive medical and surgical treatment.

Clinicians caring for patients who have external fixation and in whom infection has developed should be aware of the possibility of these more serious complications. Early diagnosis and aggressive treatment are required in order to obtain a satisfactory outcome.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:1296–1300.

Successful management of late presenting hip dislocation in childhood is judged by the outcome not just at skeletal maturity but well beyond into adulthood and late middle age. This review considers different methods of treatment and looks critically at the handful of studies reporting long-term follow-up after successful reduction.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:729–33.

Unstable pelvic injuries in young children with an immature pelvis have different modes of failure from those in adolescents and adults. We describe the pathoanatomy of unstable pelvic injuries in these children, and the incidence of associated avulsion of the iliac apophysis and fracture of the ipsilateral fifth lumbar transverse process (L5-TP). We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of 33 children with Tile types B and C pelvic injuries admitted between 2007 and 2014; their mean age was 12.6 years (2 to 18) and 12 had an immature pelvis. Those with an immature pelvis commonly sustained symphyseal injuries anteriorly with diastasis, rather than the fractures of the pubic rami seen in adolescents. Posteriorly, transsacral fractures were more commonly encountered in mature children, whereas sacroiliac dislocations and fracture-dislocations were seen in both age groups. Avulsion of the iliac apophysis was identified in eight children, all of whom had an immature pelvis with an intact ipsilateral L5-TP. Young children with an immature pelvis are more susceptible to pubic symphysis and sacroiliac diastasis, whereas bony failures are more common in adolescents. Unstable pelvic injuries in young children are commonly associated with avulsion of the iliac apophysis, particularly with displaced SI joint dislocation and an intact ipsilateral L5-TP.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:696–704.

Cubitus varus is the most frequent complication following the treatment of supracondylar humeral fractures in children. We investigated data from publications reporting on the surgical management of cubitus varus found in electronic searches of Ovid/MEDLINE and Cochrane Library databases. In 894 children from 40 included studies, the mean age at initial injury was 5.7 years (3 to 8.6) and 9.8 years (4 to 15.7) at the time of secondary correction. The four osteotomy techniques were classified as lateral closing wedge, dome, complex (multiplanar) and distraction osteogenesis. A mean angular correction of 27.6º (18.5° to 37.0°) was achieved across all classes of osteotomy. The meta-analytical summary estimate for overall rate of good to excellent results was 87.8% (95% CI 84.4 to 91.2). No technique was shown to significantly affect the surgical outcome, and the risk of complications across all osteotomy classes was 14.5% (95% CI 10.6 to 18.5). Nerve palsies occurred in 2.53% of cases (95% CI 1.4 to 3.6), although 78.4% were transient. No one technique was found to be statistically safer or more effective than any other.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:691–700.

We analysed the clinical and radiological outcomes of a new surgical technique for the treatment of heterozygote post-axial metatarsal-type foot synpolydactyly with HOX-D13 genetic mutations with a mean follow-up of 30.9 months (24 to 42). A total of 57 feet in 36 patients (mean age 6.8 years (2 to 16)) were treated with this new technique, which transfers the distal part of the duplicated fourth metatarsal to the proximal part of the fifth metatarsal. Clinical and radiological assessments were undertaken pre- and post-operatively and any complications were recorded. Final outcomes were evaluated according to the methods described by Phelps and Grogan. Forefoot width was reduced and the lengths of the all reconstructed toes were maintained after surgery. Union was achieved for all the metatarsal osteotomies without any angular deformities. Outcomes at the final assessment were excellent in 51 feet (89%) and good in six (11%). This newly described surgical technique provides for painless, comfortable shoe-wearing after a single, easy-to-perform operation with good clinical, radiological and functional outcomes.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:929–34.

Background

Resveratrol is a polyphenolic compound commonly found in the skins of red grapes. Sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) is a human gene that is activated by resveratrol and has been shown to promote longevity and boost mitochondrial metabolism. We examined the effect of resveratrol on normal and osteoarthritic (OA) human chondrocytes.

We describe three cases of infantile tibia vara resulting from an atraumatic slip of the proximal tibial epiphysis upon the metaphysis. There appears to be an association between this condition and severe obesity. Radiologically, the condition is characterised by a dome-shaped metaphysis, an open growth plate and disruption of the continuity between the lateral borders of the epiphysis and metaphysis, with inferomedial translation of the proximal tibial epiphysis. All patients were treated by realignment of the proximal tibia by distraction osteogenesis with an external circulator fixator, and it is suggested that this is the optimal method for correction of this complex deformity. There are differences in the radiological features and management between conventional infantile Blount’s disease and this ‘slipped upper tibial epiphysis’ variant.

Recent reports have suggested an increase in the number of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in children, although their true incidence is unknown.

The prognosis of the ACL-deficient knee in young active individuals is poor because of secondary meniscal tears, persistent instability and early-onset osteoarthritis. The aim of surgical reconstruction is to provide stability while avoiding physeal injury. Techniques of reconstruction include transphyseal, extraphyseal or partial physeal sparing procedures.

In this paper we review the management of ACL tears in skeletally immature patients.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1562–9.

We reviewed 5086 patients with a mean age of 30 years (9 to 69) undergoing primary reconstruction of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) in order to determine the incidence of secondary pathology with respect to the time between injury and reconstruction. There was an increasing incidence of medial meniscal tears and chondral damage, but not lateral meniscal tears, with increasing intervals before surgery. The chances of requiring medial meniscal surgery was increased by a factor of two if ACL reconstruction was delayed more than five months, and increased by a factor of six if surgery was delayed by > 12 months. The effect of delaying surgery on medial meniscal injury was also pronounced in the patients aged < 17 years, where a delay of five to 12 months doubled the odds of medial meniscal surgery (odds ratio (OR) 2.0, p = 0.001) and a delay of > 12 months quadrupled the odds (OR 4.3, p = 0.001). Increasing age was associated with a greater odds of chondral damage (OR 4.6, p = 0.001) and medial meniscal injury (OR 2.9, p = 0.001), but not lateral meniscal injury. The gender split (3251 men, 1835 women) revealed that males had a greater incidence of both lateral (34% (n = 1114) vs 20% (n = 364), p = 0.001) and medial meniscal tears (28% (n = 924) vs 25% (n = 457), p = 0.006), but not chondral damage (35% (n = 1152) vs 36% (n = 665), p = 0.565). We conclude that ideally, and particularly in younger patients, ACL reconstruction should not be delayed more than five months from injury.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:59–64.

The April 2012 Research Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at who is capable of being an arthroscopist, bupivacaine, triamcinolone and chondrotoxicity, reducing scarring in injured skeletal muscle, horny Goat Weed and the repair of osseous defects, platelet-derived growth factor and fracture healing, the importance of the reserve zone in a child’s growth plate, coping with advanced arthritis, hydroxyapatite and platelet-rich plasma for bone defects, and calcium phosphate and bone regeneration

We undertook a retrospective analysis of 306 procedures on 233 patients, with a mean age of 12 years (1 to 21), in order to evaluate the use of somatosensory evoked potential (SSEP) monitoring for the early detection of nerve compromise during external fixation procedures for limb lengthening and correction of deformity. Significant SSEP changes were identified during 58 procedures (19%). In 32 instances (10.5%) the changes were transient, and resolved once the surgical cause had been removed. The remaining 26 (8.5%) were analysed in two groups, depending on whether or not corrective action had been performed in response to critical changes in the SSEP recordings. In 16 cases in which no corrective action was taken, 13 (81.2%, 4.2% overall) developed a post-operative neurological deficit, six of which were permanent and seven temporary, persisting for five to 18 months. In the ten procedures in which corrective action was taken, four patients (40%, 1.3% overall) had a temporary (one to eight months) post-operative neuropathy and six had no deficit.

After appropriate intervention in response to SSEP changes, the incidence and severity of neurological deficits were significantly reduced, with no cases of permanent neuropathy. SSEP monitoring showed 100% sensitivity and 91% specificity for the detection of nerve injury during external fixation. It is an excellent diagnostic technique for identifying nerve lesions when they are still highly reversible.

Fractures of the femoral neck in children are rare, high-energy injuries with high complication rates. Their treatment has become more interventional but evidence of the efficacy of such measures is limited. We performed a systematic review of studies examining different types of treatment and their outcomes, including avascular necrosis (AVN), nonunion, coxa vara, premature physeal closure (PPC), and Ratliff’s clinical criteria. A total of 30 studies were included, comprising 935 patients. Operative treatment and open reduction were associated with higher rates of AVN. Delbet types I and II fractures were most likely to undergo open reduction and internal fixation. Coxa vara was reduced in the operative group, whereas nonunion and PPC were not related to surgical intervention. Nonunion and coxa vara were unaffected by the method of reduction. Capsular decompression had no effect on AVN. Although surgery allows a more anatomical union, it is uncertain whether operative treatment or the type of reduction affects the rate of AVN, nonunion or PPC, because more severe fractures were operated upon more frequently. A delay in treatment beyond 24 hours was associated with a higher incidence of AVN.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:135-41.

The purpose of this study was to assess the outcome of 15 patients (mean age 13.6 years (7 to 25)) with a primary sarcoma of the tibial diaphysis who had undergone excision of the affected segment that was then irradiated (90 Gy) and reimplanted with an ipsilateral vascularised fibular graft within it.

The mean follow-up was 57 months (22 to 99). The mean time to full weight-bearing was 23 weeks (9 to 57) and to complete radiological union 42.1 weeks (33 to 55). Of the 15 patients, seven required a further operation, four to obtain skin cover. The mean Musculoskeletal Society Tumor Society functional score at final follow-up was 27 out of 30 once union was complete. The functional results were comparable with those of allograft reconstruction and had a similar rate of complication.

We believe this to be a satisfactory method of biological reconstruction of the tibial diaphysis in selected patients.

Florid reactive periostitis is a pronounced periosteal reaction, usually affecting the hands and feet, for which there is no obvious cause. It is rare in children and in long bones. We report an unusual case of florid reactive periostitis in a ten-year-old girl that involved both bones of the forearm. The lesion resolved over a period of one year, leaving a residual exostosis. She developed a physeal bar in the distal ulna in the region of the lesion at one-year follow-up. This was thought to be a complication of the biopsy procedure and was treated by resection and proximal ulnar lengthening.

The outcome of displaced hips treated by Somerville and Scott’s method was assessed after more than 25 years. A total of 147 patients (191 displaced hips) was reviewed which represented an overall follow-up of 65.6%. The median age at the index operation was two years. During the first five years, 25 (13%) hips showed signs of avascular change.

The late development of valgus angulation of the neck, after ten years, was seen in 69 (36%) hips. Further operations were frequently necessary. Moderate to severe osteoarthritis developed at a young age in 40% of the hips. Total hip replacement or arthrodesis was necessary in 27 (14%) hips at a mean age of 36.5 years. Risk factors identified were high dislocation, open reduction, and age at the original operation. Two groups of patients were compared according to outcome. All the radiographic indices were different between the two groups after ten years, but most were similar before. It takes a generation to establish the prognosis, although some early indicators may help to predict outcome.

Percutaneous epiphysiodesis using transphyseal screws (PETS) has been developed for the treatment of lower limb discrepancies with the aim of replacing traditional open procedures. The goal of this study was to evaluate its efficacy and safety at skeletal maturity. A total of 45 consecutive patients with a mean skeletal age of 12.7 years (8.5 to 15) were included and followed until maturity. The mean efficacy of the femoral epiphysiodesis was 35% (14% to 87%) at six months and 66% (21% to 100%) at maturity. The mean efficacy of the tibial epiphysiodesis was 46% (18% to 73%) at six months and 66% (25% to 100%) at maturity. In both groups of patients the under-correction was significantly reduced between six months post-operatively and skeletal maturity. The overall rate of revision was 18% (eight patients), and seven of these revisions (87.5%) involved the tibia. This series showed that use of the PETS technique in the femur was safe, but that its use in the tibia was associated with a significant rate of complications, including a valgus deformity in nine patients (20%), leading us to abandon it in the tibia. The arrest of growth was delayed and the final loss of growth at maturity was only 66% of that predicted pre-operatively. This should be taken into account in the pre-operative planning.

This study evaluated the effect of limb lengthening on longitudinal growth in patients with achondroplasia. Growth of the lower extremity was assessed retrospectively by serial radiographs in 35 skeletally immature patients with achondroplasia who underwent bilateral limb lengthening (Group 1), and in 12 skeletally immature patients with achondroplasia who did not (Group 2). In Group 1, 23 patients underwent only tibial lengthening (Group 1a) and 12 patients underwent tibial and femoral lengthening sequentially (Group 1b).

The mean lengthening in the tibia was 9.2 cm (59.5%) in Group 1a, and 9.0 cm (58.2%) in the tibia and 10.2 cm (54.3%) in the femur in Group 1b. The mean follow-up was 9.3 years (8.6 to 10.3). The final mean total length of lower extremity in Group 1a was 526.6 mm (501.3 to 552.9) at the time of skeletal maturity and 610.1 mm (577.6 to 638.6) in Group 1b, compared with 457.0 mm (411.7 to 502.3) in Group 2. However, the mean actual length, representing the length solely grown from the physis without the length of distraction, showed that there was a significant disturbance of growth after limb lengthening. In Group 1a, a mean decrease of 22.4 mm (21.3 to 23.1) (4.9%) was observed in the actual limb length when compared with Group 2, and a greater mean decrease of 38.9 mm (37.2 to 40.8) (8.5%) was observed in Group 1b when compared with Group 2 at skeletal maturity.

In Group 1, the mean actual limb length was 16.5 mm (15.8 to 17.2) (3.6%) shorter in Group 1b when compared with Group 1a at the time of skeletal maturity. Premature physeal closure was seen mostly in the proximal tibia and the distal femur with relative preservation of proximal femur and distal tibia.

We suggest that significant disturbance of growth can occur after extensive limb lengthening in patients with achondroplasia, and therefore, this should be included in pre-operative counselling of these patients and their parents.

We present our experience of forearm lengthening in children with various conditions performed by a single surgeon between 1995 and 2009. A total of 19 children with a mean age of 9.8 years (2.1 to 15.9) at the time of surgery had 22 forearm lengthenings using either an Ilizarov/spatial and Ilizarov circular frame or a monolateral external fixator. The patients were divided into two groups: group A, in whom the purpose of treatment was to restore the relationship between the radius and the ulna, and group B, in whom the objective was to gain forearm length. The mean follow-up after removal of the frame was 26 months (13 to 53).

There were ten patients (11 forearms) in group A with a mean radioulnar discrepancy of 2.4 cm (1.5 to 3.3) and nine patients (11 forearms) in group B. In group A, the mean lengthening achieved was 2.7 cm (1.0 to 5.5), with a lengthening index of 11.1 weeks/cm. Equalisation or overcorrection of the discrepancy was achieved in seven of 11 forearms, but lengthening was only partially successful at preventing subluxation or dislocation of the radial head. In group B, the mean lengthening achieved was 3.8 cm (1.9 to 6.8), with a lengthening index of 7.25 weeks/cm. Common complications in both groups were pin-site infection and poor regenerate formation.

Forearm lengthening by distraction osteogenesis is a worthwhile procedure in children that can improve cosmesis and function, particularly in patients with shortening of both radius and ulna.

Adult presentation of neglected congenital muscular torticollis is rare. We report 12 patients with this condition who underwent a modified Ferkel’s release comprising a bipolar release of sternocleidomastoid with Z-lengthening. They had a mean age of 24 years (17 to 31) and were followed up for a minimum of two years. Post-operatively a cervical collar was applied for three weeks with intermittent supervised active assisted exercises for six weeks. Outcome was assessed using a modified Lee score and a Cheng and Tang score. The mean pre-operative rotational deficit was 8.25° (0° to 15°) and mean lateral flexion deficit was 20.42° (15° to 30°), which improved after treatment to a mean of 1.67° (0° to 5°) and 7.0° (4° to 14°) after treatment, respectively. According to the modified Lee scoring system, six patients had excellent results, two had good results and four had fair results, and using the Cheng and Tang score, eight patients had excellent results and four had good results.

Surgical management of adult patients with neglected congenital muscular torticollis using a modified Ferkel’s bipolar release gives excellent results. The range of neck movement and head tilt improved in all 12 patients and cosmesis improved in 11, despite the long-standing nature of the deformity.

From a global point of view, chronic haematogenous osteomyelitis in children remains a major cause of musculoskeletal morbidity. We have reviewed the literature with the aim of estimating the scale of the problem and summarising the existing research, including that from our institution. We have highlighted areas where well-conducted research might improve our understanding of this condition and its treatment.

This study evaluated the results of a physeal-sparing technique of intra-articular anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction in skeletally immature patients, with particular reference to growth disturbance. Between 1992 and 2007, 57 children with a mean age of 12.2 years (6.8 to 14.5) underwent ACL reconstruction using the same technique. At a mean of 5.5 years (2 to 14) after surgery, 56 patients underwent clinical and radiological evaluation. At that time, 49 patients (87.5%) had reached bony maturity and 53 (95%) achieved A or B according to the IKDC 2000 classification. Four patients had stopped participation in sports because of knee symptoms, and three patients (5.4%) had a subsequent recurrent ACL injury. There was no clinical or radiological evidence of growth disturbance after a mean growth in stature of 20.0 cm (3 to 38).

This study demonstrates that ACL reconstruction sparing the physes in children is a safe technique protecting against meniscal tears and giving better results than reconstruction in adults, without causing significant growth disturbance.

The scarcity of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in iliac crest bone marrow aspirate (ICBMA), and the expense and time in culturing cells, has led to the search for alternative harvest sites. The reamer-irrigation-aspirator (RIA) provides continuous irrigation and suction during reaming of long bones. The aspirated contents pass via a filter, trapping bony fragments, before moving into a ‘waste’ bag from which MSCs have been previously isolated. We examined the liquid and solid phases, performed a novel digestion of the solid phase, and made a comparative assessment in terms of number, phenotype and differentiation capacity with matched ICBMA.

The solid fraction from the filtrate was digested for 60 minutes at 37°C with collagenase. Enumeration was performed via the colony-forming unit fibroblast (CFU-F) assay. Passage (P2) cells were differentiated towards osteogenic, adipogenic and chondrogenic lineages, and their phenotypes assessed using flow cytometry (CD33, CD34, CD45, CD73, CD90, and CD105).

MSCs from the RIA phases were able to differentiate at least as well as those from ICBMA, and all fractions had phenotypes consistent with other established sources. The median number of colonies for the three groups was: ICBMA = 8.5 (2 to 86), RIA-liquid = 19.5 (4 to 90), RIA-solid = 109 (67 to 200) per 200 μl. The mean total yield of cells for the three groups was: ICBMA = 920 (0 to 4275), RIA-liquid = 114 983 (16 500 to 477 750), RIA-solid = 12 785 (7210 to 28 475).

The RIA filtrate contains large numbers of MSCs that could potentially be extracted without enzymatic digestion and used for bone repair without prior cell expansion.