Aims. Rotator cuff (RC) injuries are characterized by tendon rupture, muscle atrophy, retraction, and fatty infiltration, which increase injury severity and jeopardize adequate tendon repair. Epigenetic drugs, such as histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACis), possess the capacity to redefine the molecular signature of cells, and they may have the potential to inhibit the transformation of the fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) within the skeletal muscle into adipocyte-like cells, concurrently enhancing the myogenic potential of the satellite cells. Methods. HDACis were added to FAPs and satellite cell cultures isolated from mice. The HDACi vorinostat was additionally administered into a RC injury animal model. Histological analysis was carried out on the isolated supra- and infraspinatus muscles to assess vorinostat anti-muscle degeneration potential. Results. Vorinostat, a HDACi compound, blocked the adipogenic transformation of muscle-associated FAPs in culture, promoting myogenic progression of the satellite cells. Furthermore, it protected muscle from degeneration after acute RC in mice in the earlier muscle degenerative stage after tenotomy. Conclusion. The HDACi vorinostat may be a candidate to prevent early muscular degeneration after RC injury. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2024;13(4):169–183

Objectives

Indocyanine green (ICG) fluorescence angiography is an emerging technique that can provide detailed anatomical information during surgery. The purpose of this study is to determine whether ICG fluorescence angiography can be used to evaluate the blood flow of the rotator cuff tendon in the clinical setting.

Aims

We performed a systematic review of the literature to determine whether earlier surgical repair of acute rotator cuff tear (ARCT) leads to superior post-operative clinical outcomes.

The sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is a pivotal articulation in the linked system of the upper limb girdle, providing load-bearing in compression while resisting displacement in tension or distraction at the manubrium sterni. The SCJ and acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) both have a small surface area of contact protected by an intra-articular fibrocartilaginous disc and are supported by strong extrinsic and intrinsic capsular ligaments. The function of load-sharing in the upper limb by bulky periscapular and thoracobrachial muscles is extremely important to the longevity of both joints. Ligamentous and capsular laxity changes with age, exposing both joints to greater strain, which may explain the rising incidence of arthritis in both with age. The incidence of arthritis in the SCJ is less than that in the ACJ, suggesting that the extrinsic ligaments of the SCJ provide greater stability than the coracoclavicular ligaments of the ACJ.

Instability of the SCJ is rare and can be difficult to distinguish from medial clavicular physeal or metaphyseal fracture-separation: cross-sectional imaging is often required. The distinction is important because the treatment options and outcomes of treatment are dissimilar, whereas the treatment and outcomes of ACJ separation and fracture of the lateral clavicle can be similar. Proper recognition and treatment of traumatic instability is vital as these injuries may be life-threatening. Instability of the SCJ does not always require surgical intervention. An accurate diagnosis is required before surgery can be considered, and we recommend the use of the Stanmore instability triangle. Most poor outcomes result from a failure to recognise the underlying pathology.

There is a natural reluctance for orthopaedic surgeons to operate in this area owing to unfamiliarity with, and the close proximity of, the related vascular structures, but the interposed sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles are rarely injured and provide a clear boundary to the medial retroclavicular space, as well as an anatomical barrier to unsafe intervention.

This review presents current concepts of instability of the SCJ, describes the relevant surgical anatomy, provides a framework for diagnosis and management, including physiotherapy, and discusses the technical challenges of operative intervention.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:721–31.

Surgical repair of posterosuperior rotator cuff tears has a poorer outcome and a higher rate of failure compared with repairs of supraspinatus tears. In this prospective cohort study 28 consecutive patients with an irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tear after failed conservative or surgical treatment underwent teres major tendon transfer. Their mean age was 60 years (48 to 71) and the mean follow-up was 25 months (12 to 80). The mean active abduction improved from 79° (0° to 150°) pre-operatively to 105° (20° to 180°) post-operatively (p = 0.011). The mean active external rotation in 90° abduction improved from 25° (0° to 70°) pre-operatively to 55° (0° to 90°) post-operatively (p < 0.001). The mean Constant score improved from 43 (18 to 78) pre-operatively to 65 (30 to 86) post-operatively (p < 0.001). The median post-operative VAS (0 to 100) for pain decreased from 63 (0 to 96) pre-operatively to 5 (0 to 56) post-operatively (p < 0.001).

In conclusion, teres major transfer effectively restores function and relieves pain in patients with irreparable posterosuperior rotator cuff tears and leads to an overall clinical improvement in a relatively young and active patient group with limited treatment options.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:523–9.

This study reports the clinical and sonographic outcome of arthroscopic rotator cuff repair in patients aged ≥ 70 years and aimed to determine factors associated with re-tear. A total of 69 consecutive repairs were performed in 68 patients with a mean age of 77 years (70 to 86). Constant-Murley scores were collected pre-operatively and at one year post-operatively. The integrity of the repair was assessed using ultrasound. Re-tear was detected in 20 of 62 patients (32%) assessed with ultrasound. Age at operation was significantly associated with re-tear free survival (p = 0.016). The mean pre-operative Constant score was 23 (sd 14), which increased to 58 (sd 20) at one year post-operatively (paired t-test, p < 0.001). Male gender was significantly associated with a higher score at one year (p = 0.019).

We conclude that arthroscopic rotator cuff repair in patients aged ≥ 70 years is a successful procedure. The gender and age of the patient are important factors to consider when planning management.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:199–205.

Scapulothoracic fusion (STF) for painful winging of the scapula in neuromuscular disorders can provide effective pain relief and functional improvement, but there is little information comparing outcomes between patients with dystrophic and non-dystrophic conditions. We performed a retrospective review of 42 STFs in 34 patients with dystrophic and non-dystrophic conditions using a multifilament trans-scapular, subcostal cable technique supported by a dorsal one-third semi-tubular plate. There were 16 males and 18 females with a mean age of 30 years (15 to 75) and a mean follow-up of 5.0 years (2.0 to 10.6). The mean Oxford shoulder score improved from 20 (4 to 39) to 31 (4 to 48). Patients with non-dystrophic conditions had lower overall functional scores but achieved greater improvements following STF. The mean active forward elevation increased from 59° (20° to 90°) to 97° (30° to 150°), and abduction from 51° (10° to 90°) to 83° (30° to 130°) with a greater range of movement achieved in the dystrophic group. Revision fusion for nonunion was undertaken in five patients at a mean time of 17 months (7 to 31) and two required revision for fracture. There were three pneumothoraces, two rib fractures, three pleural effusions and six nonunions. The main risk factors for nonunion were smoking, age and previous shoulder girdle surgery.

STF is a salvage procedure that can provide good patient satisfaction in 82% of patients with both dystrophic and non-dystrophic pathologies, but there was a relatively high failure rate (26%) when poor outcomes were analysed. Overall function was better in patients with dystrophic conditions which correlated with better range of movement; however, patients with non-dystrophic conditions achieved greater functional improvement.

Displaced fractures of the lateral end of the clavicle in young patients have a high incidence of nonunion and a poor functional outcome after conservative management. Operative treatment is therefore usually recommended. However, current techniques may be associated with complications which require removal of the fixation device. We have evaluated the functional and radiological outcomes using a novel technique of open reduction and internal fixation. A series of 16 patients under 60 years of age with displaced fractures of the lateral end were treated by open reduction and fixation using a twin coracoclavicular endobutton technique. They were followed up for the first year after their injury.

At one year the mean Constant score was 87.1 and the median Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand score was 3.3. All fractures had united, except in one patient who developed an asymptomatic fibrous union. One patient had post-traumatic stiffness of the shoulder, which resolved with physiotherapy. None required re-operation.

This technique produces good functional and radiological outcomes with a low prevalence of complications and routine implant removal is not necessary.

In order to compare the outcome from surgical repair and physiotherapy, 103 patients with symptomatic small and medium-sized tears of the rotator cuff were randomly allocated to one of the two approaches. The primary outcome measure was the Constant score, and secondary outcome measures included the self-report section of the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, the Short Form 36 Health Survey and subscores for shoulder movement, pain, strength and patient satisfaction. Scores were taken at baseline and after six and 12 months by a blinded assessor. Nine patients (18%) with insufficient benefit from physiotherapy after at least 15 treatment sessions underwent secondary surgical treatment.

Analysis of between-group differences showed better results for the surgery group on the Constant scale (difference 13.0 points, p − 0.002), on the American Shoulder and Elbow surgeons scale (difference 16.1 points, p < 0.0005), for pain-free abduction (difference 28.8°, p = 0.003) and for reduction in pain (difference on a visual analogue scale −1.7 cm, p < 0.0005).

This study examined the role of vitamin D as a factor accounting for fatty degeneration and muscle function in the rotator cuff. There were 366 patients with disorders of the shoulder. A total of 228 patients had a full-thickness tear (group 1) and 138 patients had no tear (group 2). All underwent magnetic resonance arthrography and an isokinetic muscle performance test. The serum concentrations of vitamin D (25(OH)D₃) were measured.

In general, a lower serum level of vitamin D was related to higher fatty degeneration in the muscles of the cuff. Spearman’s correlation coefficients were 0.173 (p = 0.001), −0.181 (p = 0.001), and −0.117 (p = 0.026) for supraspinatus, infraspinatus and subscapularis, respectively. In group 1, multivariate linear regression analysis revealed that the serum level of vitamin D was an independent variable for fatty degeneration of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus.

The serum vitamin D level has a significant negative correlation with the fatty degeneration of the cuff muscle and a positive correlation with isokinetic muscle torque.

The aim of this study was to determine the functional outcome and rate of re-tears following mini-open repair of symptomatic large and massive tears of the rotator cuff using a two-row technique.

The 24 patients included in the study were assessed prospectively before and at a mean of 27 months (18 to 53) after surgery using the Constant and the Oxford Shoulder scores. Ultrasound examination was carried out at follow-up to determine the integrity of the repair. Patient satisfaction was assessed using a simple questionnaire.

The mean Constant score improved significantly from 36 before to 68 after operation (p < 0.0001) and the mean Oxford Shoulder score from 39 to 20 (p < 0.0001). Four of the 24 patients (17%) had a re-tear diagnosed by ultrasound. A total of 21 patients (87.5%) were satisfied with the outcome of their surgery. The repair remained intact in 20 patients (83%). However, the small number of re-tears (four patients) in the study did not allow sufficient analysis to show a difference in outcome in relation to the integrity of the repair.

Transfer of pectoralis major has evolved as the most favoured option for the management of the difficult problem of irreparable tears of subscapularis. We describe our experience with this technique in 30 patients divided into three groups. Group I comprised 11 patients with a failed procedure for instability of the shoulder, group II included eight with a failed shoulder replacement and group III, 11 with a massive tear of the rotator cuff. All underwent transfer of the sternal head of pectoralis major to restore the function of subscapularis.

At the latest follow-up pain had improved in seven of the 11 patients in groups I and III, but in only one of eight in group II. The subjective shoulder score improved in seven patients in group I, in one in group II and in six in group III. The mean Constant score improved from 40.9 points (28 to 50) in group I, 32.9 (17 to 47) in group II and 28.7 (20 to 42) in group III pre-operatively to 60.8 (28 to 89), 41.9 (24 to 73) and 52.3 (24 to 78), respectively.

Failure of the tendon transfer was highest in group II and was associated with pre-operative anterior subluxation of the humeral head. We conclude that in patients with irreparable rupture of subscapularis after shoulder replacement there is a high risk of failure of transfer of p?ctoralis major, particularly if there is pre-operative anterior subluxation of the humeral head.

We have examined the accuracy of 143 consecutive ultrasound scans of patients who subsequently underwent shoulder arthroscopy for rotator-cuff disease. All the scans and subsequent surgery were performed by an orthopaedic surgeon using a portable ultrasound scanner in a one-stop clinic. There were 78 full thickness tears which we confirmed by surgery or MRI. Three moderate-size tears were assessed as partial-thickness at ultrasound scan (false negative) giving a sensitivity of 96.2%. One partially torn and two intact cuffs were over-diagnosed as small full-thickness tears by ultrasound scan (false positive) giving a specificity of 95.4%. This gave a positive predictive value of 96.2% and a negative predictive value of 95.4%. Estimation of tear size was more accurate for large and massive tears at 96.5% than for moderate (88.8%) and small tears (91.6%). These results are equivalent to those obtained by several studies undertaken by experienced radiologists.

We conclude that ultrasound imaging of the shoulder performed by a sufficiently-trained orthopaedic surgeon is a reliable time-saving practice to identify rotator-cuff integrity.

We describe the results of Copeland surface replacement shoulder arthroplasty using the mark III prosthesis in patients over 80 years of age. End-stage arthritis of the shoulder is a source of significant pain and debilitating functional loss in the elderly. An arthroplasty offers good relief of pain and may allow the patient to maintain independence. The risk-benefit ratio of shoulder replacement may be felt to be too high in an elderly age group, but there is no published evidence to support this theory. We have assessed whether the procedure was as reliable and safe as previously seen in a younger cohort of patients. Between 1993 and 2003, 213 Copeland surface replacement arthroplasty procedures were performed in our unit, of which 29 (13.6%) were undertaken in patients over the age of 80. This group of patients was followed up for a mean of 4.5 years (2.1 to 9.3). Their mean age was 84.3 years (81 to 93), the mean operating time was 40 minutes (30 to 45) and the mean in-patient stay was five days (2 to 21). There were no peri-operative deaths or significant complications. The mean Constant score adjusted for age and gender, improved from 15.1% to 77%. Copeland surface replacement shoulder arthroplasty may be performed with minimal morbidity and rapid rehabilitation in the elderly.

We retrospectively identified 18 consecutive patients with synovial chrondromatosis of the shoulder who had arthroscopic treatment between 1989 and 2004. Of these, 15 were available for review at a mean follow-up of 5.3 years (2.3 to 16.5). There were seven patients with primary synovial chondromatosis, but for the remainder, the condition was a result of secondary causes. The mean Constant score showed that pain and activities of daily living were the most affected categories, being only 57% and 65% of the values of the normal side. Surgery resulted in a significant improvement in the mean Constant score in these domains from 8.9 (4 to 15) to 11.3 (2 to 15) and from 12.9 (5 to 20) to 18.7 (11 to 20), respectively (unpaired t-test, p = 0.04 and p < 0.0001, respectively). Movement and strength were not significantly affected. Osteoarthritis was present in eight patients at presentation and in 11 at the final review. Recurrence of the disease with new loose bodies occurred in two patients from the primary group at an interval of three and 12 years post-operatively. In nine patients, loose bodies were also present in the bicipital groove; seven of these underwent an open bicipital debridement and tenodesis.

We found that arthroscopic debridement of the glenohumeral joint and open debridement and tenodesis of the long head of biceps, when indicated, are safe and effective in relieving symptoms at medium-term review.

Ulnar nerve function, during and after open reduction and internal fixation of fractures of the distal humerus with subperiosteal elevation of the nerve, was assessed by intra-operative neurophysiological monitoring. Intermittent recording of the compound muscle action potentials was taken from the hypothenar muscles in 18 neurologically asymptomatic patients.

The mean amplitude of the compound muscle action potential after surgery was 98.1% (sd 17.6; −37% to +25%). The amplitude improved in six patients following surgery. Despite unremarkable recordings one patient had progressive paresis. Motor impairment is unlikely if the compound muscle action potential is continuously preserved and not reduced by more than 40% at the end of surgery. Temporary decreases in amplitude by up to 70% were tolerated without clinical consequences. However, repeated clinical examination is obligatory to recognise and treat early post-operative palsy.

We describe 14 patients who underwent transfer of latissimus dorsi using a new technique through a single-incision. Their mean age was 61 years (47 to 76) and the mean follow-up was 32 months (19 to 42).

The mean Constant score improved from 46.5 to 74.6 points. The mean active flexion increased from 119° to 170°, mean abduction from 118° to 169° and mean external rotation from 19° to 33°. The Hornblower sign remained positive in three patients (23%) as did the external rotation lag sign also in three patients (23%). No patient had a positive drop-arm sign at follow-up. No significant difference was noted between the mean pre- and postoperative acromiohumeral distance as seen on radiographs. An increased grade of osteoarthritis was found in three patients (23%). Electromyographic analysis showed activity of the transferred muscle in all patients.

CT arthrography and arthroscopy were used to assess tears of the rotator cuff in 259 shoulders. Tear size was determined in the frontal and sagittal planes according to the classification of the French Arthroscopy Society. CT arthrography had a sensitivity of 99% and a specificity of 100% for the diagnosis of tears of supraspinatus. For infraspinatus these figures were 97.44% and 99.52%, respectively and, for subscapularis, 64.71% and 98.17%. For lesions of the long head of the biceps, the sensitivity was 45.76% and the specificity was 99.57%. Our study showed an excellent correlation between CT arthrography and arthroscopy when assessing the extent of a rotator cuff tear. CT arthrography should, therefore, be an indispensable part of pre-operative assessment. It allows determination of whether a tear is reparable (retraction of the tendon and fatty degeneration of the corresponding muscle) and whether this is possible by arthroscopy (degree of tendon retraction and extension to subscapularis)

We report ten cases of rupture of the distal part of the tendon of biceps brachii in patients aged from 27 to 58 years. MRI allowed assessment of the degree of retraction of the tendon which was related to the integrity of the bicipital expansion. When the retraction exceeded 8 cm the expansion was always ruptured. When there was doubt, or in longstanding injury, MRI allowed the lesions to be defined. Surgical repair was by reinsertion on the radial tuberosity at one or two fixation points in eight patients and reinsertion on the anterior brachial muscle in one. The other patient refused surgery. The MRI findings were confirmed at operation. Use of fixation points allowed minimal intervention, thereby reducing the risk of damaging the radial nerve. One year after operation, dynamometric evaluation of the strength of flexion and supination confirmed that the best results were obtained by reinsertion to the radial tuberosity