Aims

The management of mid-shaft clavicle fractures (MSCFs) has evolved over the last three decades. Controversy exists over which specific fracture patterns to treat and when. This review aims to synthesize the literature in order to formulate an appropriate management algorithm for these injuries in both adolescents and adults.

Aims. The incidence of atypical femoral fractures (AFFs) continues to increase. However, there are currently few long-term studies on the complications of AFFs and factors affecting them. Therefore, we attempted to investigate the outcomes, complications, and risk factors for complication through mid-term follow-up of more than three years. Methods. From January 2003 to January 2016, 305 patients who underwent surgery for AFFs at six hospitals were enrolled. After exclusion, a total of 147 patients were included with a mean age of 71.6 years (48 to 89) and 146 of whom were female. We retrospectively evaluated medical records, and reviewed radiographs to investigate the fracture site, femur bowing angle, presence of delayed union or nonunion, contralateral AFFs, and peri-implant fracture. A statistical analysis was performed to identify the significance of associated factors. Results. The mean follow-up period was 70.2 months (36 to 191). There were 146 AFFs (99.3%) in female patients and the mean age was 71.6 years (48 to 89). The AFFs were located in the subtrochanter and shaft in 52 cases (35.4%) and 95 (64.6%), respectively. The preoperative mean anterior/lateral femoral bowing angles were 10.5° (SD 5.7°)/6.1° (SD 6.2°). The postoperative mean anterior/lateral bowing values were changed by 8.7° (SD 5.4°)/4.6° (SD 5.9°). Bisphosphonates had been used contemporarily in 115 AFFs (78.2%) for a mean of 52.4 months (1 to 204; SD 45.5) preoperatively. Nailing was performed in 133 AFFs (90.5%), and union was obtained at a mean of 23.6 weeks (7 to 85). Delayed union occurred in 41 (27.9%), and nonunion occurred in 13 (8.8%). Contralateral AFF occurred in 79 patients (53.7%), and the use of a bisphosphonate significantly influenced the occurrence of contralateral AFFs (p = 0.019). Peri-implant fractures occurred in a total of 13 patients (8.8%), and a significant increase was observed in cases with plating (p = 0.021) and high grade of postoperative anterolateral bowing (p = 0.044). Conclusion. The use of a bisphosphonate was found to be a risk factor for contralateral AFF, and high-grade postoperative anterolateral bowing and plate fixation significantly increased the occurrence of peri-implant fractures. Long-term follow-up studies on the bilaterality of AFFs and peri-implant fractures are warranted. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(11):1648–1655

Aims

Postoperative delirium (POD) and postoperative cognitive decline (POCD) are common surgical complications. In the UK, the Best Practice Tariff incentivizes the screening of delirium in patients with hip fracture. Further, a National Hip Fracture Database (NHFD) performance indicator is the reduction in the incidence of POD. To aid in its recognition, we sought to determine factors associated with POD and POCD in patients with hip fractures.

Aims

This is a prospective randomised controlled trial comparing the functional outcomes of plate fixation and elastic stable intramedullary nailing (ESIN) of completely displaced mid-shaft fractures of the clavicle in the active adult population.

Aims

This study describes the use of the Masquelet technique to treat segmental tibial bone loss in 12 patients.

End caps are intended to prevent nail migration (push-out) in elastic stable intramedullary nailing. The aim of this study was to investigate the force at failure with and without end caps, and whether different insertion angles of nails and end caps would alter that force at failure.

Simulated oblique fractures of the diaphysis were created in 15 artificial paediatric femurs. Titanium Elastic Nails with end caps were inserted at angles of 45°, 55° and 65° in five specimens for each angle to create three study groups. Biomechanical testing was performed with axial compression until failure. An identical fracture was created in four small adult cadaveric femurs harvested from two donors (both female, aged 81 and 85 years, height 149 cm and 156 cm, respectively). All femurs were tested without and subsequently with end caps inserted at 45°.

In the artificial femurs, maximum force was not significantly different between the three groups (p = 0.613). Push-out force was significantly higher in the cadaveric specimens with the use of end caps by an up to sixfold load increase (830 N, standard deviation (SD) 280 vs 150 N, SD 120, respectively; p = 0.007).

These results indicate that the nail and end cap insertion angle can be varied within 20° without altering construct stability and that the risk of elastic stable intramedullary nailing push–out can be effectively reduced by the use of end caps.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:558–63.

The June 2014 Knee Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at: acute repair preferable in hamstring ruptures; osteoarthritis a given in ACL injury, even with reconstruction?; chicken and egg: patellofemoral dysfunction and hip weakness; meniscal root tears as bad as we thought; outcomes in the meniscus; topical NSAIDs have a measurable effect on synovitis; nailing for tibial peri-prosthetic fracture.

Antegrade nailing of proximal humeral fractures using a straight nail can damage the bony insertion of the supraspinatus tendon and may lead to varus failure of the construct. In order to establish the ideal anatomical landmarks for insertion of the nail and their clinical relevance we analysed CT scans of bilateral proximal humeri in 200 patients (mean age 45.1 years (sd 19.6; 18 to 97) without humeral fractures. The entry point of the nail was defined by the point of intersection of the anteroposterior and lateral vertical axes with the cortex of the humeral head. The critical point was defined as the intersection of the sagittal axis with the medial limit of the insertion of the supraspinatus tendon on the greater tuberosity. The region of interest, i.e. the biggest entry hole that would not encroach on the insertion of the supraspinatus tendon, was calculated setting a 3 mm minimal distance from the critical point. This identified that 38.5% of the humeral heads were categorised as ‘critical types’, due to morphology in which the predicted offset of the entry point would encroach on the insertion of the supraspinatus tendon that may damage the tendon and reduce the stability of fixation.

We therefore emphasise the need for ‘fastidious’ pre-operative planning to minimise this risk.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:249–53.

Techniques for fixation of fractures of the lateral malleolus have remained essentially unchanged since the 1960s, but are associated with complication rates of up to 30%. The fibular nail is an alternative method of fixation requiring a minimal incision and tissue dissection, and has the potential to reduce the incidence of complications. We reviewed the results of 105 patients with unstable fractures of the ankle that were fixed between 2002 and 2010 using the Acumed fibular nail. The mean age of the patients was 64.8 years (22 to 95), and 80 (76%) had significant systemic medical comorbidities. Various different configurations of locking screw were assessed over the study period as experience was gained with the device. Nailing without the use of locking screws gave satisfactory stability in only 66% of cases (4 of 6). Initial locking screw constructs rendered between 91% (10 of 11) and 96% (23 of 24) of ankles stable. Overall, seven patients had loss of fixation of the fracture and there were five post-operative wound infections related to the distal fibula. This lead to the development of the current technique with a screw across the syndesmosis in addition to a distal locking screw. In 21 patients treated with this technique there have been no significant complications and only one superficial wound infection. Good fracture reduction was achieved in all of these patients. The mean physical component Short-Form 12, Olerud and Molander score, and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Foot and Ankle outcome scores at a mean of six years post-injury were 46 (28 to 61), 65 (35 to 100) and 83 (52 to 99), respectively. There have been no cases of fibular nonunion. Nailing of the fibula using our current technique gives good radiological and functional outcomes with minimal complications, and should be considered in the management of patients with an unstable ankle fracture.

Antegrade intramedullary nailing of fractures of the shaft of the humerus is reported to cause impairment of the shoulder joint. We have reviewed 33 patients with such fractures to assess how many had injuries to the ipsilateral shoulder. All had an MR scan of the shoulder within 11 days of injury. The unaffected shoulder was also scanned as a control. There was evidence of abnormality in 21 of the shoulders (63.6%) on the injured side; ten had bursitis of the subacromial space, five evidence of a partial tear of the rotator cuff, one a complete rupture of the supraspinatus tendon, four inflammatory changes in the acromioclavicular joint and one a fracture of the coracoid process. These injuries may contribute to pain and dysfunction of the shoulder following treatment, and their presence indicates that antegrade nailing is only partly, if at all, responsible for these symptoms.

Flexible intramedullary nailing is gaining popularity as an effective method of treating long-bone fractures in children.

We retrospectively reviewed the records and radiographs of 56 unstable fractures of the tibia in 54 children treated between March 1997 and May 2005. All were followed up for at least two months after the removal of the nails.

Of the 56 tibial fractures, 13 were open. There were no nonunions. The mean time to clinical and radiological union was ten weeks. Complications included residual angulation of the tibia, leg-length discrepancy, deep infection and failures of fixation. All achieved an excellent functional outcome.

We conclude that flexible intramedullary fixation is an easy and effective method of management of both open and closed unstable fractures of the tibia in children.

We report the outcome of 19 children aged 5.2 to 13.2 years with 20 fractures of the femoral shaft requiring surgery, who were randomly assigned to have external fixation (EF) or flexible intramedullary nailing (FIN) (10 fractures each). The duration of the operation averaged 56 minutes for the EF group with 1.4 minutes of fluoroscopy, compared with 74 minutes and 2.6 minutes, respectively, for the FIN group.

The early postoperative course was similar, but the EF group showed much more callus formation. The time to full weight-bearing, full range of movement and return to school were all shorter in the FIN group. The FIN complications included one transitory foot drop and two cases of bursitis at an insertion site. In the EF group there was one refracture, one rotatory malunion requiring remanipulation and two pin-track infections.

At an average follow-up of 14 months two patients in the EF group had mild pain, four had quadriceps wasting, one had leg-length discrepancy of over 1 cm, four had malalignment of over 5°, and one had limited hip rotation. In the FIN group, one patient had mild pain and one had quadriceps wasting; there were no length discrepancies, malalignment or limitation of movement. Parents of the FIN group were more satisfied.

We recommend the use of flexible intramedullary nailing for fractures of the femoral shaft which require surgery, and reserve external fixation for open or severely comminuted fractures.

We have reviewed retrospectively 80 patients who were treated for traumatic fractures of the femur with a Grosse-Kempf nail to assess the incidence and causes of persisting pain in the proximal thigh.

At a mean of 21 months after operation 33 patients had residual pain severe enough to interfere with their lifestyle or mobility. This was in the region of the scar on the greater trochanter in three-quarters of the patients. Only four showed no radiological abnormality. There was nonunion of the fracture in two, Paget’s disease in one, breakage of the nail in two and prominence of the proximal locking screw in five, although we found no correlation between prominence of the nail and pain.

There was a strong relationship between pain and heterotopic ossification at the proximal end of the implant; this was present in 64% of the patients with pain as compared with those without pain (p < 0.001, Mann-Whitney U test). Of the 80 patients, 27 had the implant removed after 18 months, 17 of them because of pain. In six of these 17, the pain was not relieved. Prominence of the nail proximally was not associated with pain, but protuberance of laterally-based proximal locking screws caused problems. We found a strong association between heterotopic bone formation and pain, but it is uncertain whether this is the true cause or merely an indication of some other factor such as traumatic damage to the glutei during insertion of the nail. Removal of the implant does not always cure such pain.

We performed a prospective, randomised trial in 39 patients with open tibial fractures treated initially by external fixation to compare cast immobilisation (group A) and intramedullary nailing (group B) as a sequential protocol planned from the onset of treatment.

The results showed that group B achieved faster union (p < 0.05) than group A with less malunion or shortening and a greater range of movement. Patients treated by intramedullary nailing required fewer radiographs and outpatient visits (p = 0.0015) and had a more predictable and rapid return to full function.

We feel that these severe fractures are better treated by delayed intramedullary nailing and that this has an acceptable rate of complications.