In recent years, the plantaris tendon has been implicated in the development of chronic painful mid-portion Achilles tendinopathy. In some cases, a thickened plantaris tendon is closely associated with the Achilles tendon, and surgical excision of the plantaris tendon has been reported to be curative in patients who have not derived benefit following conservative treatment and surgical interventions. The aim of this review is to outline the basic aspects of, and the recent research findings, related to the plantaris tendon, covering anatomical and clinical studies including those dealing with histology, imaging and treatment. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;98-B:1312–19

Aims. Functional rehabilitation has become an increasingly popular treatment for Achilles tendon rupture (ATR), providing comparably low re-rupture rates to surgery, while avoiding risks of surgical complications. Limited evidence exists on whether gap size should affect patient selection for this treatment option. The aim of this study was to assess if size of gap between ruptured tendon ends affects patient-reported outcome following ATR treated with functional rehabilitation. Methods. Analysis of prospectively collected data on all 131 patients diagnosed with ATR at Royal Berkshire Hospital, UK, from August 2016 to January 2019 and managed non-operatively was performed. Diagnosis was confirmed on all patients by dynamic ultrasound scanning and gap size measured with ankle in full plantarflexion. Functional rehabilitation using an established protocol was the preferred treatment. All non-operatively treated patients with completed Achilles Tendon Rupture Scores (ATRS) at a minimum of 12 months following injury were included. Results. In all, 82 patients with completed ATRS were included in the analysis. Their mean age was 51 years (standard deviation (SD) 14). The mean ATRS was 76 (SD 19) at a mean follow-up of 20 months (SD 11) following injury. Gap inversely affected ATRS with a Pearson’s correlation of -0.30 (p = 0.008). Mean ATRS was lower with gaps > 5 mm compared with ≤ 5 mm (73 (SD 21) vs 82 (SD 16); p = 0.031). Mean ATRS was lowest (70 (SD 23)) with gaps > 10 mm, with significant differences in perceived strength and pain. The overall re-rupture rate was two out of 131 (1.5%). Conclusion. Increasing gap size predicts lower patient-reported outcome, as measured by ATRS. Tendon gap > 5 mm may be a useful predictor in physically demanding individuals, and tendon gap > 10 mm for those with low physical demand. Further studies that control for gap size when comparing non-operative and operative treatment are required to assess if these patients may benefit from surgery, particularly when balanced against the surgical risks. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(11):1535–1541

We studied a cohort of 26 diabetic patients with chronic ulceration under the first metatarsal head treated by a modified Jones extensor hallucis longus and a flexor hallucis longus transfer. If the first metatarsal was still plantar flexed following these two transfers, a peroneus longus to the peroneus brevis tendon transfer was also performed. Finally, if ankle dorsiflexion was < 5° with the knee extended, a Strayer-type gastrocnemius recession was performed. The mean duration of chronic ulceration despite a minimum of six months’ conservative care was 16.2 months (6 to 31). A total of 23 of the 26 patients were available for follow-up at a mean of 39.6 months (12 to 61) after surgery. All except one achieved complete ulcer healing at a mean of 4.4 weeks (2 to 8) after surgery, and there was no recurrence of ulceration under the first metatarsal. We believe that tendon balancing using modified Jones extensor hallucis longus and flexor hallucis longus transfers, associated in selected cases with a peroneus longus to brevis transfer and/or Strayer procedure, can promote rapid and sustained healing of chronic diabetic ulcers under the first metatarsal head

This study assessed if transfer of the extensor hallucis longus is a valid alternative treatment to split transfer of the tibialis anterior tendon in adult hemiplegic patients without overactivity of the tibialis anterior. One group of 15 patients had overactivity of tibialis anterior in the swing phase, and underwent the split transfer. A further group of 14 patients had no overactivity of tibialis anterior, and underwent transfer of extensor hallucis longus. All patients had lengthening of the tendo Achillis and tenotomies of the toe flexors. All were evaluated clinically and by three-dimensional gait analysis pre- and at one year after surgery. At this time both groups showed significant reduction of disability in walking. Gait speed, stride length and paretic propulsion had improved significantly in both groups. Dorsiflexion in the swing phase, the step length of the healthy limb and the step width improved in both groups, but only reached statistical significance in the patients with transfer of the extensor hallucis longus. There were no differences between the groups at one year after operation. When combined with lengthening of the tendo Achillis, transfer of the extensor hallucis longus can be a valid alternative to split transfer of the tibialis anterior tendon to correct equinovarus foot deformity in patients without overactivity of tibialis anterior

Recurrent dislocation of peroneal tendons is uncommon and there are few reports of the long-term results after repair. The Singapore operation, first described in 1985, is an anatomical repair based on the Bankart-like lesion seen in the superior peroneal retinaculum. We reviewed 21 patients after a mean follow-up of 9.3 years, and found no recurrence. Eighteen had good functional results and had returned to their previous levels of vocational and sports activities. The three fair results were due to painful scars or neuromas

Aims

To determine whether the findings from a landmark Canadian trial assessing the optimal management of acute rupture of the Achilles tendon influenced the practice patterns of orthopaedic surgeons in Ontario, Canada.

Aims. To evaluate the donor site morbidity and tendon morphology after harvesting whole length, full-thickness peroneus longus tendon (PLT) proximal to the lateral malleolus for ligament reconstructions or tendon transfer. Methods. A total of 21 eligible patients (mean age 34.0 years (standard deviation (SD) 11.2); mean follow-up period 31.8 months (SD 7.7), and 12 healthy controls (mean age, 26.8 years (SD 5.9) were included. For patients, clinical evaluation of the donor ankle was performed preoperatively and postoperatively. Square hop test, ankle strength assessment, and MRI of distal calf were assessed bilaterally in the final follow-up. The morphological symmetry of peroneal tendons bilaterally was evaluated by MRI in healthy controls. Results. Among the patients, the mean pre- and postoperative American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) hindfoot score and Karlsson-Peterson score were 98.7 (SD 2.5; p = 0.480) and 98.5 (SD 2.4; p = 0.480), and 98.3 (SD 2.4; p = 0.162) and 97.9 (SD 2.5; p = 0.162), respectively. There was no significant difference between square hop test bilaterally (p = 0.109) and plantar flexion peak force bilaterally (p = 0.371). The harvested limb had significantly less eversion peak force compared to the contralateral limb (p < 0.001). Evidence of probable tendon regeneration was observed in all the patients by MRI and the total bilateral peroneal tendon index (mean ratio of harvested side cross-sectional area of peroneal tendon compared with the contralateral side) was 82.9% (SD 17.4). In 12 healthy controls, peroneal tendons (mean 99.4% (SD 4.3) were found to be morphologically symmetrical between the two sides. Conclusion. The current study showed satisfactory clinical foot and ankle outcomes after full-thickness PLT harvesting and indicated the regenerative potential of PLT after its removal. Level of Evidence: Level IV, therapeutic retrospective case series. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2020;102-B(2):205–211

Aims. The purposes of this study were to clarify first, the incidence of peroneal tendon dislocation in patients with a fracture of the talus and second the factors associated with peroneal tendon dislocation. Patients and Methods. We retrospectively examined 30 patients (30 ankles) with a mean age of 37.5 years, who had undergone internal fixation for a fracture of the talus. Independent examiners assessed for peroneal tendon dislocation using the pre-operative CT images. The medical records were also reviewed for the presence of peroneal tendon dislocation. The associations between the presence of dislocation with the patient characteristics or radiological findings, including age, mechanism of injury, severity of fracture, and fleck sign, were assessed using Fisher’s exact tests. Results. The pre-operative CT images showed peroneal tendon dislocation in eight out of 30 patients. Dislocation was found later in one patient whose pre-operative CT image had not shown dislocation. The overall incidence of peroneal tendon dislocation was 30% (9/30). The presence of dislocation was associated with the presence of a fleck sign (p = 0.03). Conclusions. Surprisingly, approximately one-third of the patients who underwent internal fixation for a fracture of the talus had peroneal tendon dislocation. This was associated with a fleck sign. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:489–93

The incidence of acute and chronic conditions of the tendo Achillis appear to be increasing. Causation is multifactorial but the role of inherited genetic elements and the influence of environmental factors altering gene expression are increasingly being recognised. Certain individuals’ tendons carry specific variations of genetic sequence that may make them more susceptible to injury. Alterations in the structure or relative amounts of the components of tendon and fine control of activity within the extracellular matrix affect the response of the tendon to loading with failure in certain cases. This review summarises present knowledge of the influence of genetic patterns on the pathology of the tendo Achillis, with a focus on the possible biological mechanisms by which genetic factors are involved in the aetiology of tendon pathology. Finally, we assess potential future developments with both the opportunities and risks that they may carry. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:305–13

Aims

Although absorbable sutures for the repair of acute Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) have been attracting attention, the rationale for their use remains insufficient. This study prospectively compared the outcomes of absorbable and nonabsorbable sutures for the repair of acute ATR.

Aims. This prospective cohort study aims to determine if the size of the tendon gap following acute rupture of the Achilles tendon shows an association with the functional outcome following non-operative treatment. . Patients and Methods. All patients presenting within two weeks of an acute unilateral rupture of the Achilles tendon between July 2012 and July 2015 were considered for the study. In total, 38 patients (nine female, 29 male, mean age 52 years; 29 to 78) completed the study. Dynamic ultrasound examination was performed to confirm the diagnosis and measure the gap between ruptured tendon ends. Outcome was assessed using dynamometric testing of plantarflexion and the Achilles tendon Total Rupture score (ATRS) six months after the completion of a rehabilitation programme. Results. Patients with a gap ≥ 10 mm with the ankle in the neutral position had significantly greater peak torque deficit than those with gaps < 10 mm (mean 23.3%; 7% to 52% vs 14.3%; 0% to 47%, p = 0.023). However, there was no difference in ATRS between the two groups (mean score 87.2; 74 to 100 vs 87.4; 68 to 97, p = 0.467). There was no significant correlation between gap size and torque deficit (τ = 0.103), suggesting a non-linear relationship. There was also no significant correlation between ATRS and peak torque deficit (τ = -0.305). . Conclusion . This is the first study to identify an association between tendon gap and functional outcome in acute rupture of the Achilles tendon. We have identified 10 mm as a gap size at which deficits in plantarflexion strength become significantly greater, however, the precise relationship between gap size and plantarflexion strength remains unclear. Large, multicentre studies will be needed to clarify this relationship and identify population subgroups in whom deficits in peak torque are reflected in patient-reported outcome measures. . Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:87–93

Aims

The purpose of this study was to assess the success rate and functional outcomes of bone grafting for periprosthetic bone cysts following total ankle arthroplasty (TAA). Additionally, we evaluated the rate of graft incorporation and identified associated predisposing factors using CT scan.

Aims

Despite the increasing numbers of ankle arthroplasties, there are limited studies on their survival and comparisons between different implants. The primary aim of this study was to determine the failure rates of primary ankle arthroplasties commonly used in the UK.

Lengthening of the conjoined tendon of the gastrocnemius aponeurosis and soleus fascia is frequently used in the treatment of equinus deformities in children and adults. The Vulpius procedure as described in most orthopaedic texts is a division of the conjoined tendon in the shape of an inverted V. However, transverse division was also described by Vulpius and Stoffel, and has been reported in some clinical studies. We studied the anatomy and biomechanics of transverse division of the conjoined tendon in 12 human cadavers (24 legs). Transverse division of the conjoined tendon resulted in predictable, controlled lengthening of the gastrocsoleus muscle-tendon unit. The lengthening achieved was dependent both on the level of the cut in the conjoined tendon and division of the midline raphé. Division at a proximal level resulted in a mean lengthening of 15.2 mm (. sd . 2.0, (12 to 19), which increased to 17.1 mm (. sd . 1.8, (14 to 20) after division of the midline raphé. Division at a distal level resulted in a mean lengthening of 21.0 mm (. sd. 2.0, (18 to 25), which increased to 26.4 mm (. sd . 1.4, (24 to 29) after division of the raphé. These differences were significant (p < 0.001). Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:778–82

Aims. The traditional transosseus flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendon transfer for patients with Achilles tendinopathy requires two incisions to harvest a long tendon graft. The use of a bio-tenodesis screw enables a short graft to be used and is less invasive, but lacks supporting evidence about its biomechanical behaviour. We aimed, in this study, to compare the strength of the traditional transosseus tendon-to-tendon fixation with tendon-to-bone fixation using a tenodesis screw, in cyclical loading and ultimate load testing. Materials and Methods. Tendon grafts were undertaken in 24 paired lower-leg specimens and randomly assigned in two groups using fixation with a transosseus suture (suture group) or a tenodesis screw (screw group). The biomechanical behaviour was evaluated using cyclical and ultimate loading tests. The Student’s t-test was performed to assess statistically significant differences in bone mineral density (BMD), displacement, the slope of the load-displacement curves, and load to failure. Results. The screw group showed less displacement (loosening) during cyclical loading, which was significant during 300, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, and 1000 cycles (p < 0.05: other cycles: 0.079 < p < 0.402). Compared with the suture group, the screw group had higher mean ultimate load values (133.6 N, . sd. 73.5 vs 110.1 N,. sd. 46.2; p = 0.416). Conclusion. Fixation of the FHL tendon with a tenodesis screw enables a less invasive procedure to be undertaken and shows similar biomechanical behaviour and primary strength compared with fixation using a transosseus suture. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:1175–81

We dissected 12 fresh-frozen leg specimens to identify the insertional footprint of each fascicle of the Achilles tendon on the calcaneum in relation to their corresponding muscles. A further ten embalmed specimens were examined to confirm an observation on the retrocalcaneal bursa. The superficial part of the insertion of the Achilles tendon is represented by fascicles from the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle, which is inserted over the entire width of the inferior facet of the calcaneal tuberosity. In three specimens this insertion was in continuity with the plantar fascia in the form of periosteum. The deep part of the insertion of the Achilles tendon is made of fascicles from the soleus tendon, which insert on the medial aspect of the middle facet of the calcaneal tuberosity, while the fascicles of the lateral head of the gastrocnemius tendon insert on the lateral aspect of the middle facet of the calcaneal tuberosity. A bicameral retrocalcaneal bursa was present in 15 of the 22 examined specimens. . This new observation and description of the insertional footprint of the Achilles tendon and the retrocalcaneal bursa may allow a better understanding of the function of each muscular part of the gastrosoleus complex. This may have clinical relevance in the treatment of Achilles tendinopathies. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:1344–8

Aims. Flexor hallucis longus (FHL) tendon transfer is a well-recognized technique in the treatment of the neglected tendo Achillis (TA) rupture. Patients and Methods. We report a retrospective review of 20/32 patients who had undergone transtendinous FHL transfer between 2003 and 2011 for chronic TA rupture. Their mean age at the time of surgery was 53 years (22 to 83). The mean time from rupture to surgery was seven months (1 to 36). The mean postoperative follow-up was 73 months (29 to 120). Six patients experienced postoperative wound complications. Results. The mean postoperative Achilles tendon Total Rupture Score (ATRS) was 83 (40 to 100) and the mean American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS) score was 94.3 (82 to 100). Tegner scoring showed a mean reduction of one level from the pre-injury level of activity. There was a mean reduction of 24% (4 to 54) in dynamometer-measured strength of ankle plantarflexion, in comparison with the non-operated side. The hallux had a mean of only 40% (2 to 90) strength of plantarflexion in comparison with the contralateral side. Conclusion. We conclude that transtendinous FHL transfer for neglected TA ruptures, with a long harvest to allow reattachment of the triceps surae, provides reliable long-term function and good ankle plantarflexion strength. Despite the loss of strength in hallux plantar flexion, there is little comorbidity from the FHL harvest. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:584–9

We studied 11 patients with checkrein deformities of the hallux who underwent surgical treatment. Six had lengthening of the flexor hallucis longus tendon by Z-plasty in the midfoot, and five underwent release of adhesions and lengthening of the tendon by Z-plasty at the musculotendinous junction at the fracture site. All six patients who underwent Z-plasty at the midfoot showed complete correction of the deformity without recurrence. Of the five who had release of adhesions and Z-plasty of the tendon at the fracture site, two showed partial and one showed complete recurrence

Chronic infections and ulceration around the tendo Achillis are difficult to manage. Split-skin grafts do not survive even on healthy exposed tendon. Refractory cases may require plastic surgical intervention with the use of free flaps. Patients with significant vascular disease are not suitable for such techniques. Flexor hallucis longus tendon transfer is an established treatment for chronic ruptures of the tendo Achillis. We report the successful treatment of an infected tendo Achillis with excision and reconstruction with flexor hallucis longus transfer. The muscle belly of this tendon allowed later skin grafting while the tendon transfer provided good functional recovery

Aims

To assess the characteristic clinical features, management, and outcome of patients who present to orthopaedic surgeons with functional dystonia affecting the foot and ankle.