The outcome of an anatomical shoulder replacement depends on an intact rotator cuff. In 1981 Grammont designed a novel large-head reverse shoulder replacement for patients with cuff deficiency. Such has been the success of this replacement that it has led to a rapid expansion of the indications. We performed a systematic review of the literature to evaluate the functional outcome of each indication for the reverse shoulder replacement. Secondary outcome measures of range of movement, pain scores and complication rates are also presented

Reversed shoulder prostheses are increasingly being used for the treatment of glenohumeral arthropathy associated with a deficient rotator cuff. These non-anatomical implants attempt to balance the joint forces by means of a semi-constrained articular surface and a medialised centre of rotation. A finite element model was used to compare a reversed prosthesis with an anatomical implant. Active abduction was simulated from 0° to 150° of elevation. With the anatomical prosthesis, the joint force almost reached the equivalence of body weight. The joint force was half this for the reversed prosthesis. The direction of force was much more vertically aligned for the reverse prosthesis, in the first 90° of abduction. With the reversed prosthesis, abduction was possible without rotator cuff muscles and required 20% less deltoid force to achieve it. This force analysis confirms the potential mechanical advantage of reversed prostheses when rotator cuff muscles are deficient

Instability after arthroplasty of the shoulder is difficult to correct surgically. Soft-tissue procedures and revision surgery using unconstrained anatomical components are associated with a high rate of failure. The purpose of this study was to determine the results of revision of an unstable anatomical shoulder arthroplasty to a reverse design prosthesis. Between 2004 and 2007, 33 unstable anatomical shoulder arthroplasties were revised to a reverse design. The mean age of the patients was 71 years (53 to 86) and their mean follow-up was 42 months (25 to 71). The mean time to revision was 26 months (4 to 164). Pain scores improved significantly (pre-operative visual analogue scale (VAS) of 7.2 (. sd. 1.6); most recent VAS 2.2 (. sd. 1.9); p = 0.001). There was a statistically significant increase in mean active forward elevation from 40.2° (. sd. 27.3) to 97.0° (. sd. 36.2) (p = 0.001). There was no significant difference in internal (p = 0.93) or external rotation (p = 0.40). Radiological findings included notching in five shoulders (15%) and heterotopic ossification of the inferior capsular region in three (9%). At the last follow-up 31 shoulders (94%) were stable. The remaining two shoulders dislocated at 2.5 weeks and three months post-operatively, respectively. According to the Neer rating system, there were 13 excellent (40%), ten satisfactory (30%) and ten unsatisfactory results (30%). Revision of hemiarthroplasty or anatomical total shoulder replacement for instability using a reverse design prosthesis gives good short-term results. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:668–72

We have previously described the short-term outcome of the use of reverse shoulder arthroplasty in the treatment of acute complex proximal humeral fractures in the elderly. We now report the clinical and radiological outcome of 36 fractures at a mean of 6.6 years (1 to 16). Previously, at a mean follow-up of 6 years (1 to 12) the mean Constant score was 58.5; this was reduced to 53 points with the further follow-up. A total of 23 patients (63%) had radiological evidence of loosening of the glenoid component. Nevertheless, only one patient had aseptic loosening of the baseplate at 12 years’ follow-up. The reduction in the mean Constant score with longer follow-up and the further development of scapular notching is worrying. New developments in design, bearing surfaces and surgical technique, and further follow-up, will determine whether reverse shoulder arthroplasty has a place in the management of complex proximal humeral fractures in the elderly

Radiological changes and differences between cemented and uncemented components of Grammont reverse shoulder arthroplasties (DePuy) were analysed at a mean follow-up of 9.6 years (8 to 12). Of 122 reverse shoulder arthroplasties implanted in five shoulder centres between 1993 and 2000, a total of 68 (65 patients) were available for study. The indications for reversed shoulder arthroplasty were cuff tear arthropathy in 48 shoulders, revision of shoulder prostheses of various types in 11 and massive cuff tear in nine. The development of scapular notching, bony scapular spur formation, heterotopic ossification, glenoid and humeral radiolucencies, stem subsidence, radiological signs of stress shielding and resorption of the tuberosities were assessed on standardised true anteroposterior and axillary radiographs. A scapular notch was observed in 60 shoulders (88%) and was associated with the superolateral approach (p = 0.009). Glenoid radiolucency was present in 11 (16%), bony scapular spur and/or ossifications in 51 (75%), and subsidence of the stem and humeral radiolucency in more than three zones were present in three (8.8%) and in four (11.8%) of 34 cemented components, respectively, and in one (2.9%) and two (5.9%) of 34 uncemented components, respectively. Radiological signs of stress shielding were significantly more frequent with uncemented components (p < 0.001), as was resorption of the greater (p < 0.001) and lesser tuberosities (p = 0.009)

We report the use of the reverse shoulder prosthesis in the revision of a failed shoulder hemiarthroplasty in 19 shoulders in 18 patients (7 men, 11 women) with severe pain and loss of function. The primary procedure had been undertaken for glenohumeral arthritis associated with severe rotator cuff deficiency. Statistically significant improvements were seen in pain and functional outcome. After a mean follow-up of 44 months (24 to 89), mean forward flexion improved by 26.4° and mean abduction improved by 35°. There were six prosthesis-related complications in six shoulders (32%), five of which had severe bone loss of the glenoid, proximal humerus or both. Three shoulders (16%) had non-prosthesis related complications. The use of the reverse shoulder prosthesis provides improvement in pain and function for patients with failure of a hemiarthroplasty for glenohumeral arthritis and rotator cuff deficiency. However, high rates of complications were associated with glenoid and proximal humeral bone loss

The combination of an irreparable tear of the rotator cuff and destructive arthritis of the shoulder joint may cause severe pain, disability and loss of independence in the aged. Standard anatomical shoulder replacements depend on a functioning rotator cuff, and hence may fail in the presence of tears in the cuff. Many designs of non-anatomical constrained or semi-constrained prostheses have been developed for cuff tear arthropathy, but have proved unsatisfactory and were abandoned. The DePuy Delta III reverse prosthesis, designed by Grammont, medialises and stabilises the centre of rotation of the shoulder joint and has shown early promise. This study evaluated the mid-term clinical and radiological results of this arthroplasty in a consecutive series of 50 shoulders in 43 patients with a painful pseudoparalysis due to an irreparable cuff tear and destructive arthritis, performed over a period of seven years by a single surgeon. A follow-up of 98% was achieved, with a mean duration of 39 months (8 to 81). The mean age of the patients at the time of surgery was 81 years (59 to 95). The female to male ratio was 5:1. During the seven years, six patients died of natural causes. The clinical outcome was assessed using the American Shoulder and Elbow score, the Oxford Shoulder Score and the Short-form 36 score. A radiological review was performed using the Sirveaux score for scapular notching. The mean American Shoulder and Elbow score was 19 (95% confidence interval (CI) 14 to 23) pre-operatively, and 65 (95% CI 48 to 82) (paired t-test, p < 0.001) at final follow-up. The mean Oxford score was 44 (95% CI 40 to 51) pre-operatively and 23 (95% CI 18 to 28) (paired t-test, p < 0.001) at final follow-up. The mean maximum elevation improved from 55° pre-operatively to 105° at final follow-up. There were seven complications during the whole series, although only four patients required further surgery

We retrospectively reviewed 21 patients (22 shoulders) who presented with deep infection after surgery to the shoulder, 17 having previously undergone hemiarthroplasty and five open repair of the rotator cuff. Nine shoulders had undergone previous surgical attempts to eradicate their infection. The diagnosis of infection was based on a combination of clinical suspicion (16 shoulders), positive frozen sections (> 5 polymorphonuclear leukocytes per high-power field) at the time of revision (15 shoulders), positive intra-operative cultures (18 shoulders) or the pre-operative radiological appearances. The patients were treated by an extensive debridement, intravenous antibiotics, and conversion to a reverse shoulder prosthesis in either a single- (10 shoulders) or a two-stage (12 shoulders) procedure. At a mean follow-up of 43 months (25 to 66) there was no evidence of recurrent infection. All outcome measures showed statistically significant improvements. Mean abduction improved from 36.1° (. sd. 27.8) pre-operatively to 75.7° (. sd. 36.0) (p < 0.0001), the mean forward flexion from 43.1° (. sd. 33.5) to 79.5° (. sd. 43.2) (p = 0.0003), and mean external rotation from 10.2° (. sd. 18.7) to 25.4° (. sd. 23.5) (p = 0.0037). There was no statistically significant difference in any outcome between the single-stage and the two-stage group

This study provides recommendations on the position of the implant in reverse shoulder replacement in order to minimise scapular notching and osteophyte formation. Radiographs from 151 patients who underwent primary reverse shoulder replacement with a single prosthesis were analysed at a mean follow-up of 28.3 months (24 to 44) for notching, osteophytes, the position of the glenoid baseplate, the overhang of the glenosphere, and the prosthesis scapular neck angle (PSNA). A total of 20 patients (13.2%) had a notch (16 Grade 1 and four Grade 2) and 47 (31.1%) had an osteophyte. In patients without either notching or an osteophyte the baseplate was found to be positioned lower on the glenoid, with greater overhang of the glenosphere and a lower PSNA than those with notching and an osteophyte. Female patients had a higher rate of notching than males (13.3% vs 13.0%) but a lower rate of osteophyte formation (22.9% vs 50.0%), even though the baseplate was positioned significantly lower on the glenoid in females (p = 0.009) and each had a similar mean overhang of the glenosphere. Based on these findings we make recommendations on the placement of the implant in both male and female patients to avoid notching and osteophyte formation. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:530–5

There have been only a few small studies of patients with an infected shoulder replacement treated with a single-stage exchange procedure. We retrospectively reviewed 35 patients (19 men and 16 women) with a peri-prosthetic infection of the shoulder who were treated in this way. A total of 26 were available for clinical examination; three had died, two were lost to follow-up and four patients had undergone revision surgery. The mean follow-up time was 4.7 years (1.1 to 13.25), with an infection-free survival of 94%. The organisms most commonly isolated intra-operatively were Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes; two patients developed a recurrent infection. Three different types of prosthesis were used: a hemiarthroplasty, a hemiarthroplasty with a bipolar head and reverse prosthesis. The mean Constant-Murley score at final follow-up was 43.3 (14 to 90) for patients with a hemiarthroplasty, 56 (40 to 88) for those with a hemiarthroplasty with a bipolar head and 61 (7 to 90) for those with a reverse prosthesis. The mean hospital stay was 10.6 days (5 to 29). Single-stage exchange is a successful and practical treatment for patients with peri-prosthetic infection of the shoulder. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:391–5

We retrospectively reviewed 11 consecutive patients with an infected reverse shoulder prosthesis. Patients were assessed clinically and radiologically, and standard laboratory tests were carried out. Peroperative samples showed Propionbacterium acnes in seven, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus in five, methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus in one and Escherichia coli in one. Two multibacterial and nine monobacterial infections were seen. Post-operatively, patients were treated with intravenous cefazolin for at least three days and in all antibiotic therapy was given for at least three months. Severe pain (3 of 11) or severe limitation of function (3 of 11) are not necessarily seen. A fistula was present in eight, but function was not affected. All but one patient were considered free of infection after one-stage revision at a median follow-up of 24 months, and without antibiotic treatment for a minimum of six months. One patient had a persistent infection despite a second staged revision, but is now free of infection with a spacer. Complications included posterior dislocation in one, haematoma in one and a clavicular fracture in one. At the most recent follow-up the median post-operative Constant-Murley score was 55, 6% adjusted for age, gender and dominance. A one-stage revision arthroplasty reduces the cost and duration of treatment. It is reliable in eradicating infection and good functional outcomes can be achieved

A reversed Delta III total shoulder prosthesis was retrieved post-mortem, eight months after implantation. A significant notch was evident at the inferior pole of the scapular neck which extended beyond the inferior fixation screw. This bone loss was associated with a corresponding, erosive defect of the polyethylene cup. Histological examination revealed a chronic foreign-body reaction in the joint capsule. There were, however, no histological signs of loosening of the glenoid base plate and the stability of the prosthetic articulation was only slightly reduced by the eroded rim of the cup

There is little information about the management of peri-prosthetic fracture of the humerus after total shoulder replacement (TSR). This is a retrospective review of 22 patients who underwent a revision of their original shoulder replacement for peri-prosthetic fracture of the humerus with bone loss and/or loose components. There were 20 women and two men with a mean age of 75 years (61 to 90) and a mean follow-up 42 months (12 to 91): 16 of these had undergone a previous revision TSR. Of the 22 patients, 12 were treated with a long-stemmed humeral component that bypassed the fracture. All their fractures united after a mean of 27 weeks (13 to 94). Eight patients underwent resection of the proximal humerus with endoprosthetic replacement to the level of the fracture. Two patients were managed with a clam-shell prosthesis that retained the original components. The mean Oxford shoulder score (OSS) of the original TSRs before peri-prosthetic fracture was 33 (14 to 48). The mean OSS after revision for fracture was 25 (9 to 31). Kaplan-Meier survival using re-intervention for any reason as the endpoint was 91% (95% confidence interval (CI) 68 to 98) and 60% (95% CI 30 to 80) at one and five years, respectively.

There were two revisions for dislocation of the humeral head, one open reduction for modular humeral component dissociation, one internal fixation for nonunion, one trimming of a prominent screw and one re-cementation for aseptic loosening complicated by infection, ultimately requiring excision arthroplasty. Two patients sustained nerve palsies.

Revision TSR after a peri-prosthetic humeral fracture associated with bone loss and/or loose components is a salvage procedure that can provide a stable platform for elbow and hand function. Good rates of union can be achieved using a stem that bypasses the fracture. There is a high rate of complications and function is not as good as with the original replacement.

Fractures of the proximal humerus can lead to malalignment of the humeral head, necrosis and post-traumatic osteoarthritis. In such cases surface replacement might be a promising option.

A total of 28 shoulders with glenohumeral arthritis subsequent to a fracture underwent surface replacement arthroplasty of the humeral head in patients with a mean age of 60 years (35 to 83). On the basis of the inclination of the impacted head, post-traumatic arthritis was divided into three types: type 1, an impacted fracture of the head in an anatomical position (seven cases); type 2, a valgus impacted fracture (13 cases); type 3, a varus impacted fracture (eight cases). The outcome was measured by means of the Constant score.

According to the Boileau classification of the sequelae of fractures of the proximal humerus, all 28 patients had a final result of intra-capsular category 1. The mean Constant score for the 28 shoulders increased from 23.2 points (2 to 45) pre-operatively to 55.1 points (20 to 89) at a mean of 31 months (24 to 66) post-operatively. Valgus impacted fractures had significantly better results (p < 0.039).

Surface replacement arthroplasty can provide good results for patients with post-traumatic osteoarthritis of the shoulder. Their use avoids post-operative complications of the humeral shaft, such as peri-prosthetic fractures. Further surgery can be undertaken more easily as the bone stock is preserved.

Despite the expansion of arthroscopic surgery of the shoulder, the open deltopectoral approach to the shoulder is still frequently used, for example in fracture fixation and shoulder replacement. However, it is sometimes accompanied by unexpected bleeding. The cephalic vein is the landmark for the deltopectoral interval, yet its intimate relationship with the deltoid artery, and the anatomical variations in that structure, have not previously been documented.

In this study the vascular anatomy encountered during 100 consecutive elective deltopectoral approaches was recorded and the common variants described. Two common variants of the deltoid artery were encountered. In type I (71%) it crosses the interval and tunnels into the deltoid muscle without encountering the cephalic vein. However, in type II (21%) it crosses the interval, reaches the cephalic vein and then runs down, medial to and behind it, giving off several small arterial branches that return back across the interval to the pectoralis major. Several minor variations were also seen (8%).

These variations in the deltoid artery have not previously been described and may lead to confusion and unexpected bleeding during this standard anterior surgical approach to the shoulder.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:657–9.

Reverse total shoulder replacement (RTSR) depends on adequate deltoid function for a successful outcome. However, the anterior deltoid and/or axillary nerve may be damaged due to prior procedures or injury. The purpose of this study was to determine the compensatory muscle forces required for scapular plane elevation following RTSR when the anterior deltoid is deficient. The soft tissues were removed from six cadaver shoulders, except for tendon attachments. After implantation of the RTSR, the shoulders were mounted on a custom-made shoulder simulator to determine the mean force in each muscle required to achieve 30° and 60° of scapular plane elevation. Two conditions were tested: 1) Control with an absent supraspinatus and infraspinatus; and 2) Control with anterior deltoid deficiency. Anterior deltoid deficiency resulted in a mean increase of 195% in subscapularis force at 30° when compared with the control (p = 0.02). At 60°, the subscapularis force increased a mean of 82% (p < 0.001) and the middle deltoid force increased a mean of 26% (p = 0.04).

Scapular plane elevation may still be possible following an RTSR in the setting of anterior deltoid deficiency. When the anterior deltoid is deficient, there is a compensatory increase in the force required by the subscapularis and middle deltoid. Attempts to preserve the subscapularis, if present, might maximise post-operative function.

We describe a technique of soft-tissue reconstruction which is effective for the treatment of chronic lunotriquetral instability. Part of extensor carpi ulnaris is harvested with its distal attachment preserved. It is passed through two drill holes in the triquetrum and sutured to itself. This stabilises the ulnar side of the wrist.

We have reviewed 46 patients who underwent this procedure for post-traumatic lunotriquetral instability with clinical signs suggestive of ulnar-sided carpal instability. Standard radiographs were normal. All patients had pre-operative arthroscopy of the wrist at which dynamic lunotriquetral instability was demonstrated. A clinical rating system for the wrist by the Mayo clinic was used to measure the outcome. In 19 patients the result was excellent, in ten good, in 11 satisfactory and in six poor. On questioning, 40 (87%) patients said that surgery had substantially improved the condition and that they would recommend the operation. However, six (13%) were unhappy with the outcome and would not undergo the procedure again for a similar problem. There were six complications, five of which related to pisotriquetral problems. The mean follow-up was 39.1 months (6 to 100). We believe that tenodesis of extensor carpi ulnaris is a very satisfactory procedure for isolated, chronic post-traumatic lunotriquetral instability in selected patients. In those with associated pathology, the symptoms were improved, but the results were less predictable.

Bone loss involving articular surface is a challenging problem faced by the orthopaedic surgeon. In the hand and wrist, there are articular defects that are amenable to autograft reconstruction when primary fixation is not possible. In this article, the surgical techniques and clinical outcomes of articular reconstructions in the hand and wrist using non-vascularised osteochondral autografts are reviewed.

A total of 159 patients (84 women and 75 men, mean age of 53 (20 to 87)) with subacromial impingement were randomised to treatment with subacromial injections using lidocaine with one of hyaluronic acid (51 patients), corticosteroid (53 patients) or placebo (55 patients). Patients were followed up for 26 weeks. The primary outcome was pain on a visual analogue score (VAS), and secondary outcomes included the Constant Murley score, shoulder pain score, functional mobility score, shoulder disability questionnaire and pain-specific disability score. The different outcome measures showed similar results. After three, six and 12 weeks corticosteroid injections were superior to hyaluronic acid injections and only at six weeks significantly better than placebo injections. The mean short-term reduction in pain on the VAS score at 12 weeks was 7% (sd 2.7; 97.5% confidence interval (CI) 0.207 to 1.55; p = 0.084) in the hyaluronic acid group, 28% (sd 2.8; 97.5% CI 1.86 to 3.65; p < 0.001) in the corticosteroid group and 23% (sd 3.23; 97.5% CI 1.25 to 3.26; p < 0.001) in the placebo group. At 26 weeks there was a reduction in pain in 63% (32 of 51) of patients in the hyaluronic acid group, 72% (38 of 53) of those in the corticosteroid group and 69% (38 of 55) of those in the placebo group.

We were not able to show a convincing benefit from hyaluronic acid injections compared with corticosteroid or placebo injections. Corticosteroid injections produced a significant reduction in pain in the short term (three to 12 weeks), but in the long term the placebo injection produced the best results.

This study was performed to review the safety and outcome of total shoulder replacements in patients who are ≥ 80 years of age. A total of 50 total shoulder replacements in 44 patients at a mean age of 82 years (80 to 89) were studied. Their health and shoulder status, the operation and post-operative course were analysed, including pain, movement, patient satisfaction, medical and surgical complications, radiographs, the need for revision surgery, and implant and patient survival. A total of 27 patients had an ASA classification of III or IV and medical abnormalities were common. Of the 13 shoulders with bony deficiency of the glenoid, nine required grafting. The duration of hospital stay was prolonged and blood transfusions were common. There were no peri-operative deaths. The mean follow-up was for 5.5 years (2 to 12). Pain was significantly reduced (p < 0.001) and movement improved in active elevation and both external and internal rotation (p < 0.001). Using the Neer scale for assessing outcome, 40 (80%) shoulders had an excellent or satisfactory result. There were medical or surgical complications in 17 cases. Four shoulders developed radiological evidence of loosened glenoid components, and three of these had a poor outcome. Three other shoulders required revision, two for instability. By the time of this review 39 of the patients had died from unrelated causes at a mean of 7.5 years (0.8 to 16.4) after surgery.

Total shoulder replacement is a relatively effective treatment in this elderly group of patients. However, there is a requirement for more intense patient care in the peri-operative period, and non-fatal medical or surgical complications are common. Most of these elderly patients will have a comfortable functional shoulder for the rest of their lives.