Stems improve the mechanical stability of tibial components in total knee replacement (TKR), but come at a cost of stress shielding along their length. Their advantages include resistance to shear, reduced tibial lift-off and increased stability by reducing micromotion. Longer stems may have disadvantages including stress shielding along the length of the stem with associated reduction in bone density and a theoretical risk of subsidence and loosening, peri-prosthetic fracture and end-of-stem pain. These features make long stems unattractive in the primary TKR setting, but often desirable in revision surgery with bone loss and instability. In the revision scenario, stems are beneficial in order to convey structural stability to the construct and protect the reconstruction of bony defects. Cemented and uncemented long stemmed implants have different roles depending on the nature of the bone loss involved. This review discusses the biomechanics of the design of tibial components and stems to inform the selection of the component and the technique of implantation

Bone loss in the proximal tibia and distal femur is frequently encountered in revision knee replacement surgery. The various options for dealing with this depend on the extent of any bone loss. We present our results with the use of cementless metaphyseal metal sleeves in 103 patients (104 knees) with a mean follow-up of 43 months (30 to 65). At final follow-up, sleeves in 102 knees had good osseointegration. Two tibial sleeves were revised for loosening, possibly due to infection.

The average pre-operative Oxford Knee Score was 23 (11 to 36) and this improved to 32 (15 to 46) post-operatively. These early results encourage us to continue with the technique and monitor the outcomes in the long term.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1640–4.

It has been suggested that the endurance of cemented femoral reconstructions in total hip arthroplasty is affected by the creep of acrylic cement, but it is not known to what extent cement creeps under loading conditions in vivo, or how this affects load transfer. We have simulated the long-term creep properties of acrylic cement in finite-element models of femoral stem constructs and analysed their effects. We investigated whether subsidence rates measured in vivo could be explained by creep of acrylic cement, and if polished, unbonded, stems accommodated creep better than bonded stems.

Our findings showed that polished prostheses subsided only about 50 μm as a result of cement creep. The long-term prosthetic subsidence rates caused by creep of acrylic cement are therefore very small and do not explain the excessive migration rates which have sometimes been reported. Cement creep did, however, relax cement stresses and create a more favourable stress distribution at the interfaces. These trends were found around both the bonded and unbonded stems. Our results did not confirm that polished, unbonded, stems accommodated creep better than bonded stems in terms of cement and interface stress patterns.

Polished, tapered stems are now widely used for cemented total hip replacement and many such designs have been introduced. However, a change in stem geometry may have a profound influence on stability. Stems with a wide, rectangular proximal section may be more stable than those which are narrower proximally. We examined the influence of proximal geometry on stability by comparing the two-year migration of the Exeter stem with a more recent design, the CPS-Plus, which has a wider shoulder and a more rectangular cross-section. The hypothesis was that these design features would increase rotational stability. Both stems subsided approximately 1 mm relative to the femur during the first two years after implantation. The Exeter stem was found to rotate into valgus (mean 0.2°, . sd. 0.42°) and internally rotate (mean 1.28°, . sd. 0.99°). The CPS-Plus showed no significant valgus rotation (mean 0.2°, . sd. 0.42°) or internal rotation (mean −0.03°, . sd. 0.75°). A wider, more rectangular cross-section improves rotational stability and may have a better long-term outcome

Aims

Despite higher rates of revision after total hip arthroplasty (THA) being reported for uncemented stems in patients aged > 75 years, they are frequently used in this age group. Increased mortality after cemented fixation is often used as a justification, but recent data do not confirm this association. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of the design of the stem and the type of fixation on the rate of revision and immediate postoperative mortality, focusing on the age and sex of the patients.

Stems may improve fixation and stability of components during revision total knee replacement. However, the choice between cemented and cementless stems is not a clear one. Cemented stems offer several advantages in terms of versatility, mechanical stability, surgical technique and clinical outcome over their cementless counterpart. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B(11 Suppl A):115–7

Aims. Hip hemiarthroplasty is a standard treatment for intracapsular proximal femoral fractures in the frail elderly. In this study we have explored the implications of early return to theatre, within 30 days, on patient outcome following hip hemiarthroplasty. Patients and Methods. We retrospectively reviewed the hospital records of all hip hemiarthroplasties performed in our unit between January 2010 and January 2015. Demographic details, medical backround, details of the primary procedure, complications, subsequent procedures requiring return to theatre, re-admissions, discharge destination and death were collected. Results. A total of 705 procedures were included; 428 Austin Moore and 277 Exeter Trauma Stems were used. A total of 34 fractures (in 33 patients) required early return to theatre within 30 days. Age, gender, laterality, time from admission to primary procedure, American Society of Anesthesiologists grade, and implant type were similar for those requiring early return to theatre and those who did not. Early return to theatre was associated with a significantly higher length of stay (mean 33.6 days (7 to 107) versus 18.6 days (0 to 152), p < 0.001), re-admission rate (38.2% versus 8.6%, p < 0.001), and subsequent revision rate (17.6% versus 1.3%, p < 0.001). We found no difference in level of care required on discharge or mortality. Conclusion. Proximal femoral fractures are common in the elderly population, with far-reaching medical and economic implications. Factors such as infection or dislocation may require early return to theatre, and this is associated with outcomes which may be both medically and economically detrimental. This illustrates the importance of avoiding early complications to improve longer term outcome. Return to theatre within 30 days is associated with longer length of stay, higher re-admission rate, and higher subsequent revision rate. It may be a useful short-term quality indicator for longer term outcome measures following hip hemiarthroplasty for intracapsular fractures of the proximal femur. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2017;99-B:958–63

Aims

Oxidized zirconium (OxZi) and highly cross-linked polyethylene (HXLPE) were developed to minimize wear and risk of osteolysis in total hip arthroplasty (THA). However, retrieval studies have shown that scratched femoral heads may lead to runaway wear, and few reports of long-term results have been published. The purpose of this investigation is to report minimum ten-year wear rates and clinical outcomes of THA with OxZi femoral heads on HXLPE, and to compare them with a retrospective control group of cobalt chrome (CoCr) or ceramic heads on HXLPE.

Aims

Dual-mobility (DM) components are increasingly used to prevent and treat dislocation after total hip arthroplasty (THA). Intraprosthetic dissociation (IPD) is a rare complication of DM that is believed to have decreased with contemporary implants. This study aimed to report incidence, treatment, and outcomes of contemporary DM IPD.

Aims

Refobacin Bone Cement R and Palacos R + G bone cement were introduced to replace the original cement Refobacin Palacos R in 2005. Both cements were assumed to behave in a biomechanically similar fashion to the original cement. The primary aim of this study was to compare the migration of a polished triple-tapered femoral stem fixed with either Refobacin Bone Cement R or Palacos R + G bone cement. Repeated radiostereometric analysis was used to measure migration of the femoral head centre. The secondary aims were evaluation of cement mantle, stem positioning, and patient-reported outcome measures.

Short uncemented humeral stems can preserve humeral bone stock and facilitate revision surgery but may be prone to malalignment or loosening, especially when used in reverse total shoulder replacement (TSR). We undertook a retrospective review of 44 patients with a mean age of 76 years (59 to 92) who underwent primary reverse TSR with a short uncemented humeral stem. There were 29 females. The indications for joint replacement included cuff tear associated arthropathy (33), avascular necrosis (six), post-traumatic arthritis (two), and inflammatory arthritis (three). At a mean follow-up of 27 months (24 to 40), pain was rated as mild or none in 43 shoulders (97.7%). The mean active elevation improved from 54° . (sd. 20°) to 142° (. sd . 25°) and the mean active external rotation from 14° (. sd. 13°) to 45° (. sd. 9°). The outcome, as assessed by the modified Neer score, was excellent in 27 (61.3%), satisfactory in 15 (34.1%), and unsatisfactory in two shoulders (4.5%). Stems were well-positioned, without evidence of significant valgus or varus malalignment in 42 TSRs (95.5%). There was no radiological evidence of loosening of the humeral stem in any patient; 13 TSRs (29.5%) had evidence of proximal humeral remodelling and scapular notching was noted in three (6.8%). Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014;96-B:526–9

Cemented titanium stems in hip arthroplasty are associated with proximal cement-stem debonding and early failure. This was well publicised with the 3M Capital hip. However, corrosion in this setting has been reported with only one stem design and is less widely accepted. We present a series of 12 cemented titanium Furlong Straight Stems which required revision at a mean of 78 months for thigh pain. At revision the stems were severely corroded in a pattern which was typical of crevice corrosion. Symptoms were eliminated after revision to an all-stainless steel femoral prosthesis of the same design. We discuss the likely causes for the corrosion. The combination of a titanium stem and cement appears to facilitate crevice corrosion

Aims

BoneMaster is a thin electrochemically applied hydroxyapatite (HA) coating for orthopaedic implants that is quickly resorbed during osseointegration. Early stabilization is a surrogacy marker of good survival of femoral stems. The hypothesis of this study was that a BoneMaster coating yields a fast early and lasting fixation of stems.

We examined 108 uncemented femoral stems with modular femoral heads which had been retrieved for reasons other than loosening. There were detectable amounts of wear and corrosion in 10 of 29 (34.5%) mixed-alloy components and 7 of 79 (9%) single-alloy components after a mean implantation time of 25 months. We found no correlation between the presence or extent of corrosion or surface damage and any of time in situ, initial diagnosis, reason for removal, age, or weight. Stems with wear and corrosion were less likely to show histological bony ingrowth. The interface between the head and stem of modular total hip components is a possible source of ion release and wear debris, but wear and corrosion were totally absent in most specimens. This suggests that this problem could be avoided, and that further research is required to develop manufacturing methods which would minimise such changes

Aims

This aim of this study was to assess the reliability and validity of the Unified Classification System (UCS) for postoperative periprosthetic femoral fractures (PFFs) around cemented polished taper-slip (PTS) stems.

Aims

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between height, weight, and sex with implant size in total knee arthroplasty (TKA) using a multivariate linear regression model and a Bayesian model.

Aims

Varus-valgus constrained (VVC) implants are often used during revision total knee arthroplasty (TKA) to gain coronal plane stability. However, the increased mechanical torque applied to the bone-cement interface theoretically increases the risk of aseptic loosening. We assessed mid-term survivorship, complications, and clinical outcomes of a fixed-bearing VVC device in revision TKAs.

Aims

The aim of this study was to estimate the 90-day risk of revision for periprosthetic femoral fracture associated with design features of cementless femoral stems, and to investigate the effect of a collar on this risk using a biomechanical in vitro model.

Aims

Femoral stems with exchangeable (modular) necks were introduced to offer surgeons an increased choice when determining the version, offset and length of the femoral neck during total hip arthroplasty (THA). It was hoped that this would improve outcomes and reduce complications, particularly dislocation. In 2010, the Australian Orthopaedic Association National Joint Replacement Registry (AOANJRR) first reported an increased rate of revision after primary THA using femoral stems with an exchangeable neck. The aim of this study was to provide a more comprehensive up-to-date analysis of primary THA using femoral stems with exchangeable and fixed necks.

Aims

Our aim was to report survivorship data and lessons learned with the Corail/Pinnacle cementless total hip arthroplasty (THA) system.

Aims

Little is known about the relative outcomes of revision of unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA) and high tibial osteotomy (HTO) to total knee arthroplasty (TKA). The aim of this study is to compare the outcomes of revision surgery for the two procedures in terms of complications, re-revision and patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) at a minimum of two years follow-up.

Cemented femoral stems with force closed fixation designs have shown good clinical results despite high early subsidence. A new triple-tapered stem in this category (C-stem AMT) was introduced in 2005. This study compares this new stem with an established stem of similar design (Exeter) in terms of migration (as measured using radiostereometric analysis), peri-prosthetic bone remodelling (measured using dual energy x-ray densitometry, DXA), Oxford Hip Score, and plain radiographs.

A total of 70 patients (70 hips) with a mean age of 66 years (53 to 78) were followed for two years. Owing to missing data of miscellaneous reasons, the final analysis represents data from 51 (RSA) and 65 (DXA) patients. Both stems showed a typical pattern of migration: Subsidence and retroversion that primarily occurred during the first three months. C-stem AMT subsided less during the first three months (p = 0.01), before stabilising at a subsidence rate similar to the Exeter stem from years one to two. The rate of migration into retroversion was slightly higher for C-stem AMT during the second year (p = 0.03). Whilst there were slight differences in movement patterns between the stems, the C-stem AMT exhibits good early clinical outcomes and displays a pattern of migration and bone remodelling that predicts good clinical performance.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:755–61.

Objectives

Unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA) is a potential treatment for isolated bone on bone osteoarthritis when limited to a single compartment. The risk for revision of UKA is three times higher than for total knee arthroplasty (TKA). The aim of this review was to discuss the different revision options after UKA failure.

We present a retrospective series of 170 cemented titanium straight-stem femoral components combined with two types of femoral head: cobalt-chromium (CoCr) alloy (114 heads) and alumina ceramic (50 heads). Of the study group, 55 patients (55 stems) had died and six (six stems) were lost to follow-up. At a mean of 13.1 years (3 to 15.3) 26 stems had been revised for aseptic loosening. The mean follow-up time for stable stems was 15.1 years (12.1 to 16.6).

Survival of the stem at 15 years was 75.4% (95% confidence interval (CI) 67.3 to 83.5) with aseptic failure (including radiological failure) as the end-point, irrespective of the nature of the head and the quality of the cement mantle. Survival of the stem at 15 years was 79.1% (95% CI 69.8 to 88.4) and 67.1% (95% CI 51.3 to 82.9) with the CoCr alloy and ceramic heads, respectively. The quality of the cement mantle was graded as a function of stem coverage: stems with complete tip coverage (type 1) had an 84.9% (95% CI 77.6 to 92.2) survival at 15 years, compared with those with a poor tip coverage (type 2) which had a survival of only 22.4% (95% CI 2.4 to 42.4). The poor quality of the cement mantle and the implantation of an alumina head substantially lowered the survival of the stem.

In our opinion, further use of the cemented titanium alloy straight-stem femoral components used in our series is undesirable.

Aims

Periprosthetic femoral fractures (PFF) following total hip arthroplasty (THA) are devastating complications that are associated with functional limitations and increased overall mortality. Although cementless implants have been associated with an increased risk of PFF, the precise contribution of implant geometry and design on the risk of both intra-operative and post-operative PFF remains poorly investigated. A systematic review was performed to aggregate all of the PFF literature with specific attention to the femoral implant used.

We undertook a review of the literature relating to the two basic stem designs in use in cemented hip replacement, namely loaded tapers or force-closed femoral stems, and the composite beam or shape-closed designs. The associated stem fixation theory as understood from in vitro studies and finite element modelling were examined with reference to the survivorship results for each of the concepts of fixation.

It is clear that both design principles are capable of producing successful long-term results, providing that their specific requirements of stem metallurgy, shape and surface finish, preparation of the bone and handling of the cement are observed.

Periprosthetic femoral fracture (PFF) is a potentially devastating complication after total hip arthroplasty, with historically high rates of complication and failure because of the technical challenges of surgery, as well as the prevalence of advanced age and comorbidity in the patients at risk.

This study describes the short-term outcome after revision arthroplasty using a modular, titanium, tapered, conical stem for PFF in a series of 38 fractures in 37 patients.

The mean age of the cohort was 77 years (47 to 96). A total of 27 patients had an American Society of Anesthesiologists grade of at least 3. At a mean follow-up of 35 months (4 to 66) the mean Oxford Hip Score (OHS) was 35 (15 to 48) and comorbidity was significantly associated with a poorer OHS. All fractures united and no stem needed to be revised. Three hips in three patients required further surgery for infection, recurrent PFF and recurrent dislocation and three other patients required closed manipulation for a single dislocation. One stem subsided more than 5 mm but then stabilised and required no further intervention.

In this series, a modular, tapered, conical stem provided a versatile reconstruction solution with a low rate of complications.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015;97-B:1031–7.

Tribocorrosion at the head–neck taper interface – so-called ‘taperosis’ – may be a source of metal ions and particulate debris in metal-on-polyethylene total hip arthroplasty (THA).

We examined the effect of femoral head length on fretting and corrosion in retrieved head–neck tapers in vivo for a minimum of two years (mean 8.7 years; 2.6 to 15.9). A total of 56 femoral heads ranging from 28 mm to 3 mm to 28 mm + 8 mm, and 17 femoral stems featuring a single taper design were included in the study. Fretting and corrosion were scored in three horizontally oriented concentric zones of each taper by stereomicroscopy.

Head length was observed to affect fretting (p = 0.03), with 28 mm + 8 mm femoral heads showing greater total fretting scores than all other head lengths. The central zone of the femoral head bore taper was subject to increased fretting damage (p = 0.01), regardless of head length or stem offset. High-offset femoral stems were associated with greater total fretting of the bore taper (p = 0.04).

Increased fretting damage is seen with longer head lengths and high-offset femoral stems, and occurs within a central concentric zone of the femoral head bore taper. Further investigation is required to determine the effect of increased head size, and variations in head–neck taper design.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:911–16.

Revision total hip arthroplasty (THA) is challenging when there is severe loss of bone in the proximal femur. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the clinical and radiographic outcomes of revision THA in patients with severe proximal femoral bone loss treated with a fluted, tapered, modular femoral component. Between January 1998 and December 2004, 92 revision THAs were performed in 92 patients using a single fluted, tapered, modular femoral stem design. Pre-operative diagnoses included aseptic loosening, infection and peri-prosthetic fracture. Bone loss was categorised pre-operatively as Paprosky types III-IV, or Vancouver B3 in patients with a peri-prosthetic fracture. The mean clinical follow-up was 6.4 years (2 to 12). A total of 47 patients had peri-operative complications, 27 of whom required further surgery. However, most of these further operations involved retention of a well-fixed femoral stem, and 88/92 femoral components (97%) remained in situ. Of the four components requiring revision, three were revised for infection and were well fixed at the time of revision; only one (1%) was revised for aseptic loosening. The most common complications were post-operative instability (17 hips, 19%) and intra-operative femoral fracture during insertion of the stem (11 hips, 12%). Diaphyseal stress shielding was noted in 20 hips (22%). There were no fractures of the femoral component. At the final follow-up 78% of patients had minimal or no pain.

Revision THA in patients with extensive proximal femoral bone loss using the Link MP fluted, tapered, modular stem led to a high rate of osseointegration of the stem at mid-term follow-up.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:312–17.

Tapered, fluted, modular, titanium stems are increasingly popular in the operative management of Vancouver B2 and selected B3 peri-prosthetic femoral fractures. We have reviewed the results at our institution looking at stem survival and clinical outcomes and compared this with reported outcomes in the literature. Stem survival at a mean of 54 months was 96% in our series and 97% for combined published cases. Review of radiology showed maintenance or improvement of bone stock in 89% of cases with high rates of femoral union. Favourable clinical outcome scores have reported by several authors. No difference in survival or clinical scores was observed between B2 and B3 fractures. Tapered stems are a useful option in revision for femoral fracture across the spectrum of femoral bone deficiency.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B, Supple A:17–20.

We conducted a retrospective study to assess the prevalence of adverse reactions to metal debris (ARMD) in patients operated on at our institution with metal-on-metal (MoM) total hip replacements with 36 mm heads using a Pinnacle acetabular shell. A total of 326 patients (150 males, 175 hips; 176 females, 203 hips) with a mean age of 62.7 years (28 to 85) and mean follow-up of 7.5 years (0.1 to 10.8) participating in our in-depth modern MoM follow-up programme were included in the study, which involved recording whole blood cobalt and chromium ion measurements, Oxford hip scores (OHS) and plain radiographs of the hip and targeted cross-sectional imaging. Elevated blood metal ion levels (> 5 parts per billion) were seen in 32 (16.1%) of the 199 patients who underwent unilateral replacement. At 23 months after the start of our modern MoM follow-up programme, 29 new cases of ARMD had been revealed. Hence, the nine-year survival of this cohort declined from 96% (95% CI 95 to 98) with the old surveillance routine to 86% (95% CI 82 to 90) following the new protocol. Although ARMD may not be as common in 36 mm MoM THRs as in those with larger heads, these results support the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency guidelines on regular reviews and further investigations, and emphasise the need for specific a follow-up programme for patients with MoM THRs.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2014; 96-B:1610–17.

We prospectively followed 191 consecutive collarless polished tapered (CPT) femoral stems, implanted in 175 patients who had a mean age at operation of 64.5 years (21 to 85). At a mean follow-up of 15.9 years (14 to 17.5), 86 patients (95 hips) were still alive. The fate of all original stems is known. The 16-year survivorship with re-operation for any reason was 80.7% (95% confidence interval 72 to 89.4). There was no loss to follow-up, with clinical data available on all 95 hips and radiological assessment performed on 90 hips (95%). At latest follow-up, the mean Harris hip score was 78 (28 to 100) and the mean Oxford hip score was 36 (15 to 48). Stems subsided within the cement mantle, with a mean subsidence of 2.1 mm (0.4 to 19.2). Among the original cohort, only one stem (0.5%) has been revised due to aseptic loosening. In total seven stems were revised for any cause, of which four revisions were required for infection following revision of the acetabular component. A total of 21 patients (11%) required some sort of revision procedure; all except three of these resulted from failure of the acetabular component. Cemented acetabular components had a significantly lower revision burden (three hips, 2.7%) than Harris Galante uncemented components (17 hips, 21.8%) (p < 0.001).

The CPT stem continues to provide excellent radiological and clinical outcomes at 15 years following implantation. Its results are consistent with other polished tapered stem designs.

We reviewed the rate of revision of unicompartmental knee replacements (UKR) from the New Zealand Joint Registry between 1999 and 2008. There were 4284 UKRs, of which 236 required revision, 205 to a total knee replacement (U2T) and 31 to a further unicompartmental knee replacement (U2U). We used these data to establish whether the survival and functional outcome for revised UKRs were comparable with those of primary total knee replacement (TKR). The rate of revision for the U2T cohort was four times higher than that for a primary TKR (1.97 vs 0.48; p < 0.05). The mean Oxford Knee Score was also significantly worse in the U2T group than that of the primary TKR group (30.02 vs 37.16; p < 0.01). The rate of revision for conversion of a failed UKR to a further UKR (U2U cohort) was 13 times higher than that for a primary TKR.

The poor outcome of a UKR converted to a primary TKR compared with a primary TKR should contra-indicate the use of a UKR as a more conservative procedure in the younger patient.

This prospective study presents the ten-year (5 to 16) clinical and radiological results of 55 primary total hip replacements (THR) using a cementless modular femoral component (S-ROM). All patients had a significant anatomical abnormality which rendered the primary THR difficult.

The mean Harris hip score was 36 (12 to 72) pre-operatively, 83 (44 to 100) at five years, and 85 (45 to 99) at ten years. The Western Ontario and McMaster Universities osteoarthritis index (WOMAC) and short-form (SF)-12 scores were recorded from the year 2000. The mean SF-12 score at five years after surgery was 45.24 (22.74 to 56.58) for the physical component and 54.14 (29.20 to 66.61) for the mental component. By ten years the SF-12 scores were 42.86 (21.59 to 58.95) and 51.03 (33.78 to 61.40), respectively. The mean WOMAC score at five years post-operatively was 25 (0 to 59), and at ten years was 27 (2 to 70).

No femoral components were radiologically loose, although five had osteolysis in Gruen zone 1, three had osteolysis in zone 7, and two showed osteolysis in both zones 1 and 7. No osteolysis was observed around or distal to the prosthetic sleeve. No femoral components were revised, although three hips underwent an acetabular revision and two required a liner exchange. At a mean of ten years’ follow-up the S-ROM femoral component implanted for an anatomically difficult primary THR has excellent clinical and radiological results.

Custom-made intercalary endoprostheses may be used for the reconstruction of diaphyseal defects following the resection of bone tumours. The aim of this study was to determine the survival of intercalary endoprostheses with a lap joint design, and to evaluate the clinical results, complications and functional outcome. We retrospectively reviewed six consecutive patients, three of whom underwent limb salvage with intercalary endoprostheses of the tibia, two of the femur, and one of the humerus. Their mean age was 42 years (28 to 64). The mean follow-up was 21.6 months (9 to 58). The humeral prosthesis required revision at 14 months owing to aseptic loosening. There were no implant-related failures. Musculoskeletal Tumour Society functional outcome scores indicated that patients achieved 90% of premorbid function.

Custom intercalary endoprostheses result in reconstructions comparable with, if not better than, those of allografts. Using this design of implant reduces the incidence of early complications and difficulties experienced with previous versions.