Aims

Triplane ankle fractures are complex injuries typically occurring in children aged between 12 and 15 years. Classic teaching that closure of the physis dictates the overall fracture pattern, based on studies in the 1960s, has not been challenged. The aim of this paper is to analyze whether these injuries correlate with the advancing closure of the physis with age.

Salter-Harris II fractures of the distal tibia affect children frequently, and when they are displaced present a treatment dilemma. Treatment primarily aims to restore alignment and prevent premature physeal closure, as this can lead to angular deformity, limb length difference, or both. Current literature is of poor methodological quality and is contradictory as to whether conservative or surgical management is superior in avoiding complications and adverse outcomes. A state of clinical equipoise exists regarding whether displaced distal tibial Salter-Harris II fractures in children should be treated with surgery to achieve anatomical reduction, or whether cast treatment alone will lead to a satisfactory outcome. Systematic review and meta-analysis has concluded that high-quality prospective multicentre research is needed to answer this question. The Outcomes of Displaced Distal tibial fractures: Surgery Or Casts in KidS (ODD SOCKS) trial, funded by the National Institute for Health and Care Research, aims to provide this high-quality research in order to answer this question, which has been identified as a top-five research priority by the British Society for Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(5):471–473

Paediatric bone sarcomas are a dual challenge for orthopaedic surgeons in terms of tumour resection and reconstruction, as it is important to minimize functional and growth problems without compromising survival rates. Cañadell’s technique consists of a Type I epiphysiolysis performed using continuous distraction by an external fixator prior to resection. It was designed to achieve a safe margin due to the ability of the physeal cartilage to be a barrier to tumour spread in some situations, avoiding the need for articular reconstruction, and preserving the growth capacity most of the times. Despite initial doubts raised in the scientific community, this technique is now widely used in many countries for the treatment of metaphyseal paediatric bone sarcomas. This annotation highlights the importance of Cañadell’s work and reviews the experience of applying it to bone sarcoma patients over the last 40 years.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(1):11–16.

Aims

Following the introduction of national standards in 2009, most major paediatric trauma is now triaged to specialist units offering combined orthopaedic and plastic surgical expertise. We investigated the management of open tibia fractures at a paediatric trauma centre, primarily reporting the risk of infection and rate of union.

McFarland fractures of the medial malleolus in children, also classified as Salter–Harris Type III and IV fractures, are associated with a high incidence of premature growth plate arrest. In order to identify prognostic factors for the development of complications we reviewed 20 children with a McFarland fracture that was treated surgically, at a mean follow-up of 8.9 years (3.5 to 17.4). Seven children (35%) developed premature growth arrest with angular deformity. The mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale for all patients was 98.3 (87 to 100) and the mean modified Weber protocol was 1.15 (0 to 5). There was a significant correlation between initial displacement (p = 0.004) and operative delay (p = 0.007) with premature growth arrest. Both risk factors act independently and additively, such that all children with both risk factors developed premature arrest whereas children with no risk factor did not. We recommend that fractures of the medial malleolus in children should be treated by anatomical reduction and screw fixation within one day of injury.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:419–23.

Distal femoral physeal fractures in children have a high incidence of physeal arrest, occurring in a mean of 40% of cases. The underlying nature of the distal femoral physis may be the primary cause, but other factors have been postulated to contribute to the formation of a physeal bar. The purpose of this study was to assess the significance of contributing factors to physeal bar formation, in particular the use of percutaneous pins across the physis. We reviewed 55 patients with a median age of ten years (3 to 13), who had sustained displaced distal femoral physeal fractures. Most (40 of 55) were treated with percutaneous pinning after reduction, four were treated with screws and 11 with plaster. A total of 40 patients were assessed clinically and radiologically after skeletal maturity or at the time of formation of a bar. The remaining 15 were followed up for a minimum of two years. Formation of a physeal bar occurred in 12 (21.8%) patients, with the rate rising to 30.6% in patients with high-energy injuries compared with 5.3% in those with low-energy injuries. There was a significant trend for physeal arrest according to increasing severity using the Salter-Harris classification. Percutaneous smooth pins across the physis were not statistically associated with growth arrest

Excision of a physeal bar and filling the space with interposition material may allow resumption of normal growth. Both the extent and the location of the bar and the amount of growth remaining from physis must be determined. Computer-assisted surgery is being used increasingly in various fields of orthopaedics. We describe the management of a patient with premature physeal arrest of the right distal tibia in which resection of a physeal bar was achieved under real-time three-dimensional intra-operative monitoring by computer-assisted navigation.

The advantage of this method over other means of imaging is that intra-operative identification can increase the accuracy of resection of the bar.

The aim of this study was to determine whether the foundation programme for junior doctors, implemented across the United Kingdom in 2005, provides adequate training in musculoskeletal medicine. We recruited 112 doctors on completion of their foundation programme and assessed them using the Freedman and Bernstein musculoskeletal examination tool. Only 8.9% passed the assessment. Those with exposure to orthopaedics, with a career interest in orthopaedics, and who felt that they had gained adequate exposure to musculoskeletal medicine obtained significantly higher scores. Those interested in general practice as a career obtained significantly lower scores. Only 15% had any exposure to orthopaedics during the foundation programme and only 13% felt they had adequate exposure to musculoskeletal medicine. The foundation programme currently provides inadequate training in musculoskeletal medicine. The quality and quantity of exposure to musculoskeletal medicine during the foundation programme must be improved.

Fractures of the odontoid in children with an open basilar synchondrosis differ from those which occur in older children and adults. We have reviewed the morphology of these fractures and present a classification system for them.

There were four distinct patterns of fracture (types IA to IC and type II) which were distinguished by the site of the fracture, the degree of displacement and the presence or absence of atlantoaxial dislocation. Children with a closed synchondrosis were classified using the system devised by Anderson and D’Alonzo. Those with an open synchondrosis had a comparatively lower incidence of traumatic brain injury, a higher rate of missed diagnosis and a shorter mean stay in hospital. Certain subtypes (type IA and type II) are likely to be missed on plain radiographs and therefore more advanced imaging is recommended. We suggest staged treatment with initial stabilisation in a Halo body jacket and early fusion for those with unstable injuries, severe displacement or neurological involvement.

The mammalian growth plate is a complex structure which is essential for the elongation of long bones. However, an understanding of how the growth plate functions at the cellular level is lacking. This review, summarises the factors involved in growth-plate regulation, its failure and the consequence of injury. We also describe some of the cellular mechanisms which underpin the increase in volume of the growth-plate chondrocyte which is the major determinant of the rate and extent of bone lengthening. We show how living in situ chondrocytes can be imaged using 2-photon laser scanning microscopy to provide a quantitative analysis of their volume. This approach should give better understanding of the cellular control of bone growth in both healthy and failed growth plates.

The sternoclavicular joint is vulnerable to the same disease processes as other synovial joints, the most common of which are instability from injury, osteoarthritis, infection and rheumatoid disease. Patients may also present with other conditions, which are unique to the joint, or are manifestations of a systemic disease process. The surgeon should be aware of these possibilities when assessing a patient with a painful, swollen sternoclavicular joint.

Fractures of the proximal humerus with concomitant vascular injury are rare in children. We describe the presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of a fracture of the proximal humerus in association with an axillary artery injury in a child.

We observed the healing process under rigid external fixation after Salter-Harris type-1 or type-2 physeal separation at the proximal tibia in immature rabbits. Metaphyseal vessels grew across the gap with little delay; the site of separation then came to lie in the metaphysis and was bridged by endochondral ossification. Union was achieved within two days in all rabbits. Progression of endochondral ossification repaired the separated physis, thus showing ‘primary healing of physeal separation’. This depends on accurate reduction and stable fixation to allow the survival of vessels across the gap

We reviewed 24 displaced fractures through the physis of the medial epicondyle of the distal humerus. One was a Salter-Harris type-II fracture-separation of the whole distal humeral epiphysis; the others involved only the medial epicondylar centre of ossification. Two cases had presented as pseudarthroses. One fracture had been treated closed in a plaster slab and 21 had had open reduction and internal fixation with sutures, Kirschner wires or Palmer nails. At 2 to 13 years later we found five types of deformity of the epicondyle: pseudarthrosis, an ulnar sulcus, a double-contoured epicondyle, hypoplasia or hyperplasia. Pseudarthrosis had developed after either no treatment, closed reduction and plaster, or open reduction and suturing. Hypoplasia followed nailing, as did a trend to varus tilting of the joint surface. One very young patient, with fracture-separation of the whole distal epiphysis treated by nailing, developed marked cubitus varus

A retrospective study of 23 acetabular fractures in patients up to 17 years of age is presented, with an average follow-up of eight years. Good or excellent functional results were achieved in 21 patients; radiographic results were good or excellent in 16. Conservative treatment gave consistently good results in fractures with minimal initial displacement, stable posterior fracture-dislocations and Salter-Harris type 1 and 2 triradiate cartilage fractures. Less favourable results were seen in type 5 triradiate cartilage fractures and in comminuted fractures, but operation was no better. Unstable posterior fracture-dislocations and irreducible central fracture-dislocations need operative treatment but the results may still be unsatisfactory