Aims

The aim of this study was to determine the fracture haematoma (fxH) proteome after multiple trauma using label-free proteomics, comparing two different fracture treatment strategies.

Tendons and tendon-to-bone entheses don't usually regenerate after injury, and the hierarchical organization of such tissues makes them challenging sites of study for tissue engineers. In this study, we have tried a novel approach using miRNA and a bioactive bioink to stimulate the regeneration of the enthesis. microRNAs (miRNAs) are short, non-coding sequences of RNA that act as post-transcriptional regulators of gene and protein expression [1]. Mimics or inhibitors of specific miRNAs can be used to restore lost functions at the cell level or improve healing at the tissue level [2,3]. We characterized the healing of a rat patellar enthesis and found that miRNA-16-5p was upregulated in the fibrotic portion of the injured tissue 10 days after the injury. Based on the reported interactions of miRNA-16-5p with the TGF-β pathway via targeting of SMAD3, we aimed to explore the effects of miRNA-16-5p mimics on the tenogenic differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) encapsulated in a bioactive bioink [4,5]. Bioinks with different properties are used for the 3D printing of biomimetic constructs. By integrating cells, materials, and bioactive molecules it is possible to tailor the regenerative capacity of the ink to meet the particular requirements of the tissue to engineer [5]. Here we have encapsulated ASCs in a gelatin-methacryloyl (GelMa) bioink that incorporates miR-16-5p mimics and magnetically responsive microfibers (MRFs). When the bioink is crosslinked in the presence of a magnetic field, the MRFs align unidirectionally to create an anisotropic construct with the ability to promote the tenogenic differentiation of the encapsulated ASCs. Additionally, the obtained GelMA hydrogels retained the encapsulated miRNA probes, which permitted the effective 3D transfection of the ASC and therefore, the regulation of gene expression, allowing to investigate the effects of the miR-16-5p mimics on the tenogenic differentiation of the ASCs in a biomimetic scenario.

Bone regeneration is pivotal for the healing of fractures. In case this process is disturbed a non-union can occur. This can be induced by environmental factors such as smoking, overloading etc. Co-morbidities such as diabetes, osteoporosis etc. may be more intrinsic factors besides other disturbances in the process. Those pathways negatively influence the bone regeneration process. Several intrinsic signal transduction pathways (WNT, BMP etc.) can be affected. Furthermore, on the transcriptional level, important mRNA expression can be obstructed by deregulated miRNA levels. For instance, several miRNAs have been shown to be upregulated during osteoporotic fractures. They are detrimental for osteogenesis as they block bone formation and accelerate bone resorption. Modulating those miRNAs may revert the physiological homeostasis. Indeed, physiological fracture healing has a typical miRNA signature. Besides using molecular pathways for possible treatment of non-union fractures, providing osteogenic cells is another solution. In 5 clinical cases with non-union fractures with defects larger than 10 cm, successful administration of a 3D printed PCL-TCP scaffold with autologous bone marrow aspirate concentrate and a modulator of the pathogenetic pathway has been achieved. All patients recovered well and showed a complete union of their fractures within one year after start of the regenerative treatment.

Thus, non-union fractures are a diverse entity. Nevertheless, there seem to be common pathogenetic disturbances. Those can be counteracted at several levels from molecular to cell. Compositions of those may be the best option for future therapies. They can also be used in a more personalized fashion in case more specific measurements such as miRNA signature and stem cell activity are applied.

Bone homeostasis is a highly regulated process involving pathways in bone as WNT, FGF or BMP, but also requiring support from surrounding tissues as vessels and nerves. In bone diseases, the bone-vessel-nerve triad is impacted. Recently, new players appeared as regulators of bone homeostasis: microRNAs (miRNA). Five miRNAs associated with osteoporotic fractures are already known, among which miR-125b is decreasing bone formation by downregulating human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) differentiation. Other miRNAs, as miR-214 (in cluster with miR-199a), are secreted by osteoclasts to regulate osteoblasts and inhibit bone formation. This forms a very complex regulatory network.

hMSCs and osteoblasts (n=3) were transfected with mimic/antagomiR of miR-125b, miR-199a-5p or miR-214, or with a scrambled miRNA (negative control) in osteogenic differentiation calcium-enriched medium (Ca++). Mineralization was assessed by Alizarin Red/CPC staining, miRNA expression by qPCR and protein by western blotting.

Exposure of hMSCs or osteoblasts to Ca++ increased mineralization compared to basal medium. hMSCs transfected with miR-125b mimic in Ca++ presented less mineralization compared to scramble. This correlated with decreased levels of BMPR2 and RUNX2. hMSCs transfected with miR-125b inhibitor presented higher mineralization. Interestingly, hMSCs transfected with miR-214 mimic in Ca++ presented no mineralization while miR-214 inhibitor increased mineralization. No differences were observed in hMSCs transfected with miR-199a-5p modulators. On the contrary, osteoblasts transfected with miR-199a-5p mimic present less mineralization than scrambled-transfected and same was observed for miR-214 and miR-125b mimics.

We highlight that miR-125b and miR-214 decrease mineralization of hMSCs in calcium-enriched medium. We noticed that miR-199a-5p is able to regulate mineralization in osteoblasts but not in hMSCs suggesting that this effect is cell-specific. Interestingly, the cluster miR-199a/214 is known as modulator of vascular function and could thus contribute to bone remodeling via different ways. With this work we slightly open the door to possible therapeutic approaches for bone diseases.

Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) have been widely investigated for treating non-healing fractures. They participate in bone reconstruction by inducing osteoblast differentiation, and osteoid matrix production.¹ The human recombinant protein of BMP-7 was among the first growth factors approved for clinical use. Despite achieving comparable results to autologous bone grafting, severe side effects have been associated with its use.² Furthermore, BMP-7 was removed from the market.³ These complications are related to the high doses used (1.5-40 miligrams per surgery)² compared to the physiological concentration of BMP in fracture healing (in the nanogram to picogram per milliliter range).⁴ In this study, we use transcript therapy to deliver chemically modified mRNA (cmRNA) encoding BMP-7. Compared to direct use of proteins, transcript therapy allows the sustained synthesis of proteins with native conformation and true post-translational modifications using doses comparable to the physiological ones.⁵ Moreover, cmRNA technology overcomes the safety and affordability limitations of standard gene therapy i.e. pDNA.⁶ BMP-7 cmRNA was delivered using Lipofectamine™ MessengerMAX™ to human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs). We assessed protein expression and osteogenic capacity of hMSCs in monolayer culture and in a house-made, collagen hydroxyapatite scaffold. Using fluorescently-labelled cmRNA we observed an even distribution after loading complexes into the scaffold and a complete release after 3 days. For both monolayer and 3D culture, BMP-7 production peaked at 24 hours post-transfection, however cells transfected in scaffolds showed a sustained expression. BMP-7 transfected hMSCs yielded significantly higher ALP activity and Alizarin red staining at later timepoints compared to the untransfected group. Interestingly, BMP-7 cmRNA treatment triggered expression of osteogenic genes like OSX, RUNX-2 and OPN, which was also reflected in immunostainings. This work highlights the relevance of cmRNA technology that may overcome the shortcomings of protein delivery while circumventing issues of traditional pDNA-based gene therapy for bone regeneration.

Acknowledgement: This work has been performed as part of the cmRNAbone project and has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Grant Agreement No 874790.

Bone tissue is known to possess an intrinsic regeneration potential. However, in cases of major injury, trauma, and disease, bone loss is present, and the regeneration potential of the tissue is often impaired. The process of bone regeneration relies on a complex interaction of molecules. MicroRNAs (miRNA) are small, non-coding RNAs that inhibit messenger RNAs (mRNA). One miRNA can inhibit several mRNAs and one mRNA can be inhibited by several miRNAs. Functionally, miRNAs regulate the entire proteome via the local inhibition of translation. In fact, miRNA modulation has been shown to be involved in several musculoskeletal diseases¹. In those pathologies, they modulate the transcriptional activity of mRNAs important for differentiation, tissue-specific activity, extracellular matrix production, etc. Because of their function in inhibiting translation, miRNAs are being researched in many diseases and are already being used for interventional treatment². Bone tissue and its related conditions have been widely investigated up to this day^1,3. This talk will focus on the relevancy of miRNAs to bone tissue, its homeostasis, and disease. After, examples will be given of how miRNAs can be used in bone regeneration and diseases such as osteoporosis and osteosarcoma. The use of miRNAs in both, detection and therapy will be discussed.

Anatomically, bone consists of building blocks called osteons, which in turn comprise a central canal that contains nerves and blood vessels. This indicates that bone is a highly innervated and vascularized tissue. The function of vascularization in bone (development) is well-established: providing oxygen and nutrients that are necessary for the formation, maintenance, and healing. As a result, in the field of bone tissue engineering many research efforts take vascularization into account, focusing on engineering vascularized bone. In contrast, while bone anatomy indicates that the role of innervation in bone is equally important, the role of innervation in bone tissue engineering has often been disregarded.

For many years, the role of innervation in bone was mostly clear in physiology, where innervation of a skeleton is responsible for sensing pain and other sensory stimuli. Unraveling its role on a cellular level is far more complex, yet more recent research efforts have unveiled that innervation has an influence on osteoblast and osteoclast activity. Such innervation activities have an important role in the regulation of bone homeostasis, stimulating bone formation and inhibiting resorption. Furthermore, due to their anatomical proximity, skeletal nerves and blood vessels interact and influence each other, which is also demonstrated by pathways cross-over and joint responses to stimuli.

Besides those closely connected sytems, the immune system plays also a pivotal role in bone regeneration. Certain cytokines are important to attract osteogenic cells and (partially) inhibit bone resorption. Several leukocytes also play a role in the bone regeneration process.

Overall, bone interacts with several systems. Aberrations in those systems affect the bone and are important to understand in the context of bone regeneration. This crosstalk has become more evident and is taken more into consideration. This leads to more complex tissue regeneration, but may recapitulate better physiological situations.

Aim

The current treatment concepts of acute and chronic osteomyelitis are associated with unsolved challenges and problems, underlining the need for ongoing medical research. The invention and prevalence of an absorbable, gentamicin-loaded ceramic bone graft, that is well injectable for orthopedic trauma and bone infections, enlarges the treatment scope regarding the rise of posttraumatic deep bony infections. This substance can be used either for infection, dead-space, or reconstruction management. The bone cement, eluting antibiotics continuously to the surrounding tissue, outperforms the intravenous antibiotic therapy and enhances the local concentration levels efficiently. This study aims to evaluate the power and practicability of bone cement in several locations of bony infections.

The structure and extracellular matrix composition of the interface are complex and allow for a gradual mechanical stress transfer between tendons and bone. In this study, biphasic silk fibroin scaffolds designed to mimic the gradient in collagen molecule alignment present at the interface. The scaffolds had two different pore alignments: anisotropic at the tendon side and isotropic at the bone side. Total porosity ranged from 50–80% and the majority of pores were <100–300 µm. Young's modulus varied from 689–1322 kPa. In addition, human adMSC were cultured on the scaffolds to evaluate the effect of pore morphology on cell proliferation and gene expression. Biphasic scaffolds supported cell attachment and influenced cytoskeleton organization depending on pore alignment. In addition, the gene expression of tendon, enthesis and cartilage markers significantly changed in each region of the scaffolds. We functionalized those scaffolds with heparin and explored their ability to deliver TGF-β2 and GDF5. TGF-β2 and pore anisotropy synergistically increased the expression of tendon/ligament markers and collagen I protein content. The combined delivery of TGF-β2 and GDF5 enhanced the expression of cartilage markers and collagen II protein content on substrates with isotropic porosity, whereas enthesis markers were enhanced in areas of mixed anisotropic/isotropic porosity.

Bone regeneration using a scaffold-based tissue engineering approach involves a spectrum of overlapping processes, which are driven by cell-to-cell, cell-to-extracellular matrix (ECM) and cell-to-biomaterials interactions. Traditionally, the study of osteogenesis potential of tissue-engineered constructs (TECs) in vitro only considers the osteoblasts- or mesenchymal cells (MSCs)-to-biomaterials interactions. However, this poorly recapitulates the process of bone regeneration under physiological conditions. In this study, a growth factors free co-culture model, comprising osteoblasts and monocytes was established to allow for the study of the osteogenesis potential of a TEC taking into consideration osteoblasts-to-monocytes and cells-to-biomaterials interactions. Scaffolds made of medical-grade polycaprolactone (mPCL) were fabricated by means of melt electrospinning writing technique. Subsequently, scaffolds were coated with a thin layer of calcium phosphate (CaP) by means of chemical deposition. Scaffolds with CaP coating were seeded with human-derived primary osteoblasts and monocytes and cultured for up to nine weeks. At several time-points, cells were evaluated for alkaline phosphatase and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase activity. Additionally, cell morphology was observed through fluorescence microscopy and osteoblastic- and osteoclastic-related gene expression was analyzed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The simultaneous presence of osteoblasts and monocytes and CaP accelerated cell matrix formation on scaffolds. Quantitative gene expression profile showed similar findings. Whereby, osteoblastic- and osteoclastic-related gene expression was highest in the PCL/CaP co-culture groups compared to other groups. This indicated synergistic effects of soluble factors secreted by cells and solubilized inorganic components from the scaffolds in promoting matrix deposition.

After surgical tendon repair, the tendon-to-bone enthesis often doesn't regenerate, which leads to high numbers of rupture recurrences. To remedy this, tissue engineering techniques are being pursued to strengthen the interface and improve regeneration. In this study, we used biphasic 3D printed PLGA scaffolds with aligned pores at the tendon side and random pores at the bone side to mimic the native enthesis. We seeded these with mesenchymal stem cells and inserted them into dual-flow bioreactors, allowing us to employ tenogenic and chondrogenic differentiation medium in separate flows. MTS assay demonstrated metabolism in dual-flow bioreactors at levels similar to tissue culture plate and rotating bioreactors. After 7, 14 and 21 days, samples were collected and analyzed by histology, RT-PCR and GAG production. H&E staining confirmed a compact cell layer attached to fibers and between porous cavities of scaffolds that increased with time of culture. Interestingly, cultured constructs in dual-flow bioreactors biased towards a chondrogenic fate regardless of which flow they were exposed to, possibly due to high porosity of the scaffold allowing for fluid mixture. Sox9 was upregulated at all timepoints (up to 30× compared to control), and by day 21 Col2A1 was also highly upregulated. Additionally, GAG production in treated constructs (serum-free) was able to match constructs exposed to 10% FBS in controls, demonstrating the functional matrix forming capabilities of this system. Overall, we have validated this dual-flow system as a potential platform to form the enthesis, and future studies will further optimize parameters to achieve distinctly biphasic constructs.

Aim

A gentamicin-eluting biocomposite consisting of hydroxyapatite (HA) and calcium sulphate (CaS)*1 can provide effective dead space management and bone formation in chronic osteomyelitis. However, radiographic follow-up after implantation of this biomaterial has shown imaging features previously not described with other comparable bone graft substitutes. Last year we presented preliminary results with a follow-up of 6 months. Now we present the radiographic, µCT and histological one-year follow-up of the critical-size bone defect model in sheep. The aim of this study was to simulate the clinical situation in a large animal model to correlate different imaging techniques used in the clinic (Radiography, CT and MRI scans) with histological finding.

Technological advances and shorter rescue times have allowed early and effective resuscitation after trauma and brought attention to the host response to injury. Trauma patients are at risk of progressive organ dysfunction from what appears to be an uncontrolled immune response. The availability of improved techniques of molecular diagnosis has allowed investigation of the role of genetic variations in the inflammatory response to post-traumatic complications and particularly to sepsis.

This review examines the current evidence for the genetic predisposition to adverse outcome after trauma. While there is evidence supporting the involvement of different polymorphic variants of genes in determining the post-traumatic course and the development of complications, larger-scale studies are needed to improve the understanding of how genetic variability influences the responses to post-traumatic complications and pharmacotherapy.

Background /Methods: Abbreviated Injury Scale based systems; the ISS, NISS, and AISmax, are used to assess trauma patients. The merits of each in predicting outcome are controversial. A large prospective database was used to assess their predictive capacity using receiver operator characteristic curves.

Results: 13,301 adult patients met the inclusion criteria. All systems were significant outcome predictors for sepsis, multiple organ failure (MOF), length of hospital stay, length of ICU admission and mortality (p 0.0001). NISS was a significantly better predictor than the ISS for mortality (p 0.0001). NISS was equivalent to the AISmax for mortality prediction and superior in patients with orthopaedic injuries. NISS was significantly better for sepsis, MOF, ICU stay and total hospital stay (p 0.0001). Analysis of the ROC curves revealed that the traditional ISS cut-offs for severity of 16, 25 and 50 should be increased to 20, 30 and 55 to provide patients with equivalent outcome.

Conclusions: NISS is superior or equivalent to the ISS and AISmax for prediction of all investigated outcomes in a population of blunt trauma patients. As NISS is easier to calculate, its use is recommended to stratify patients for clinical and research purposes.