The current procedures being applied in the clinical setting to address osteoporosis-related delayed union and nonunion bone fractures have been found to present mostly suboptimal outcomes. As a result, bone tissue engineering (BTE) solutions involving the development of implantable biomimetic scaffolds to replace damaged bone and support its regeneration are gaining interest. The piezoelectric properties of the bone tissue, which stem primarily from the significant presence of piezoelectric type I collagen fibrils in the tissue's extracellular matrix (ECM), play a key role in preserving the bone's homeostasis and provide integral assistance to the regeneration process. However, despite their significant potential, these properties of bone tend to be overlooked in most BTE-related studies. In order to bridge this gap in the literature, novel hydroxyapatite (HAp)-filled osteoinductive and piezoelectric poly(vinylidene fluoride-co-tetrafluoroethylene) (PVDF-TrFE) electrospun nanofibers were developed to replicate the bone's fibrous ECM composition and electrical features. Different HAp nanoparticle concentrations (1–10%, wt%) were tested to assess their effect on the physicochemical and biological properties of the resulting fibers. The fabricated scaffolds displayed biomimetic collagen fibril-like diameters, while also presenting mechanical features akin to type I collagen. The increase in HAp presence was found to enhance both surface and piezoelectric properties of the fibers, with an improvement in scaffold wettability and increase in β-phase nucleation (translating to increased piezoelectricity) being observed. The HAp-containing scaffolds also exhibited an augmented bioactivity, with a more comprehensive surface mineralization of the fibers being obtained for the scaffolds with the highest HAp concentrations. Improved osteogenic differentiation of seeded human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells was achieved with the addition of HAp, as confirmed by an increased ALP activity, calcium deposition and upregulated expression of key osteogenic markers. Overall, our findings highlight, for the first time, the potential of combining PVDF-TrFE and HAp to develop electroactive and osteoinductive nanofibers for BTE.
