We present the results of 90 consecutive children with displaced fractures of the forearm treated by elastic stable intramedullary nailing with a mean follow-up of 6.6 months (2.0 to 17.6). Eight (9%) had open fractures and 77 (86%) had sustained a fracture of both bones. The operations were performed by orthopaedic trainees in 78 patients (86%). All fractures healed at a mean of 2.9 months (1.1 to 8.7). There was one case of delayed union of an ulnar fracture. An excellent or good functional outcome was achieved in 76 patients (84%). There was no statistical difference detected when the grade of operating surgeon, age of the patient and the diaphyseal level of the fracture were correlated with the outcome. A limited open reduction was required in 40 fractures (44%). Complications included seven cases of problematic wounds, two transient palsies of the superficial radial nerve and one case each of malunion and a post-operative compartment syndrome. At final follow-up, all children were pain-free and without limitation of sport and play activities. Our findings indicate that the functional outcome following paediatric fractures of the forearm treated by elastic stable intramedullary nailing is good, without the need for anatomical restoration of the radial bow

A retrospective study was performed in 100 children aged between two and 16 years, with a dorsally angulated stable fracture of the distal radius or forearm, who were treated with manipulation in the emergency department (ED) using intranasal diamorphine and 50% oxygen and nitrous oxide. Pre- and post-manipulation radiographs, the final radiographs and the clinical notes were reviewed. A successful reduction was achieved in 90 fractures (90%) and only three children (3%) required remanipulation and Kirschner wire fixation or internal fixation. The use of Entonox and intranasal diamorphine is safe and effective for the closed reduction of a stable paediatric fracture of the distal radius and forearm in the ED. . By facilitating discharge on the same day, there is a substantial cost benefit to families and the NHS and we recommend this method. Take home message: Simple easily reducible fractures of the distal radius and forearm in children can be successfully and safely treated in the ED using this approach, thus avoiding theatre admission and costly hospital stay. . Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2016;97-B:131–6

Aims. The aim of this study was to utilize a national paediatric inpatient database to determine whether obesity influences the operative management and inpatient outcomes of paediatric limb fractures. Patients and Methods. The Kids’ Inpatient Database (KID) was used to evaluate children between birth and 17 years of age, from 1997 and 2012, who had undergone open and closed treatment of humeral, radial and ulna, femoral, tibial, and ankle fractures. Demographics, hospital charges, lengths of stay (LOS), and complications were analyzed. Results. Obesity was significantly associated with increased rates of open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF) for: distal humeral (odds ratio (OR) = 2.139, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.92 to 3.44; p < 0.001); distal radius and ulna fractures (OR = 1.436, 95% CI 1.14 to 2.16; p < 0.05); distal femoral (OR = 2.051, 95% CI 1.69 to 3.60; p < 0.05); tibial and fibula shaft (OR = 2.101, 95% CI 2.10 to 3.50; p < 0.001); and ankle (OR = 1.733, 95% CI 1.70 to 2.39; p < 0.001). Older age was significantly associated with ORIF for all fractures (p < 0.05). LOS, hospital charges, and complications were significantly increased in obese patients following ORIF for upper and lower limb fractures (p < 0.05). Conclusion. Obese paediatric patients are more likely to undergo ORIF in both upper and lower limb fractures and have more inpatient complications. These findings may assist in informing obese paediatric fracture patients and their families regarding the increased risk for open operative fixation and associated outcomes. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2019;101-B:491–496

Aims. The management of fractures of the medial epicondyle is one of the greatest controversies in paediatric fracture care, with uncertainty concerning the need for surgery. The British Society of Children’s Orthopaedic Surgery prioritized this as their most important research question in paediatric trauma. This is the protocol for a randomized controlled, multicentre, prospective superiority trial of operative fixation versus nonoperative treatment for displaced medial epicondyle fractures: the Surgery or Cast of the EpicoNdyle in Children’s Elbows (SCIENCE) trial. Methods. Children aged seven to 15 years old inclusive, who have sustained a displaced fracture of the medial epicondyle, are eligible to take part. Baseline function using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) upper limb score, pain measured using the Wong Baker FACES pain scale, and quality of life (QoL) assessed with the EuroQol five-dimension questionnaire for younger patients (EQ-5D-Y) will be collected. Each patient will be randomly allocated (1:1, stratified using a minimization algorithm by centre and initial elbow dislocation status (i.e. dislocated or not-dislocated at presentation to the emergency department)) to either a regimen of the operative fixation or non-surgical treatment. Outcomes. At six weeks, and three, six, and 12 months, data on function, pain, sports/music participation, QoL, immobilization, and analgesia will be collected. These will also be repeated annually until the child reaches the age of 16 years. Four weeks after injury, the main outcomes plus data on complications, resource use, and school absence will be collected. The primary outcome is the PROMIS upper limb score at 12 months post-randomization. All data will be obtained through electronic questionnaires completed by the participants and/or parents/guardians. The NHS number of participants will be stored to enable future data linkage to sources of routinely collected data (i.e. Hospital Episode Statistics). Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(1):69–77

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This exploratory randomized controlled trial (RCT) aimed to determine the splint-related outcomes when using the novel biodegradable wood-composite splint (Woodcast) compared to standard synthetic fibreglass (Dynacast) for the immobilization of undisplaced upper limb fractures in children.

Aims. Paediatric triplane fractures and adult trimalleolar ankle fractures both arise from a supination external rotation injury. By relating the experience of adult to paediatric fractures, clarification has been sought on the sequence of injury, ligament involvement, and fracture pattern of triplane fractures. This study explores the similarities between triplane and trimalleolar fractures for each stage of the Lauge-Hansen classification, with the aim of aiding reduction and fixation techniques. Methods. Imaging data of 83 paediatric patients with triplane fractures and 100 adult patients with trimalleolar fractures were collected, and their fracture morphology was compared using fracture maps. Visual fracture maps were assessed, classified, and compared with each other, to establish the progression of injury according to the Lauge-Hansen classification. Results. Four stages of injury in triplane fractures, resembling the adult supination external rotation Lauge-Hansen stages, were observed. Stage I consists of rupture of the anterior syndesmosis or small avulsion of the anterolateral tibia in trimalleolar fractures, and the avulsion of a larger Tillaux fragment in triplanes. Stage II is defined as oblique fracturing of the fibula at the level of the syndesmosis, present in all trimalleolar fractures and in 30% (25/83) of triplane fractures. Stage III is the fracturing of the posterior malleolus. In trimalleolar fractures, the different Haraguchi types can be discerned. In triplane fractures, the delineation of the posterior fragment has a wave-like shape, which is part of the characteristic Y-pattern of triplane fractures, originating from the Tillaux fragment. Stage IV represents a fracture of the medial malleolus, which is highly variable in both the trimalleolar and triplane fractures. Conclusion. The paediatric triplane and adult trimalleolar fractures share common features according to the Lauge-Hansen classification. This highlights that the adolescent injury arises from a combination of ligament traction and a growth plate in the process of closing. With this knowledge, a specific sequence of reduction and optimal screw positions are recommended. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(9):1008–1014

Aims. Paediatric fractures are highly prevalent and are most often treated with plaster. The application and removal of plaster is often an anxiety-inducing experience for children. Decreasing the anxiety level may improve the patients’ satisfaction and the quality of healthcare. Virtual reality (VR) has proven to effectively distract children and reduce their anxiety in other clinical settings, and it seems to have a similar effect during plaster treatment. This study aims to further investigate the effect of VR on the anxiety level of children with fractures who undergo plaster removal or replacement in the plaster room. Methods. A randomized controlled trial was conducted. A total of 255 patients were included, aged five to 17 years, who needed plaster treatment for a fracture of the upper or lower limb. Randomization was stratified for age (five to 11 and 12 to 17 years). The intervention group was distracted with VR goggles and headphones during the plaster treatment, whereas the control group received standard care. As the primary outcome, the post-procedural level of anxiety was measured with the Child Fear Scale (CFS). Secondary outcomes included the children’s anxiety reduction (difference between CFS after and CFS before plaster procedure), numerical rating scale (NRS) pain, NRS satisfaction of the children and accompanying parents/guardians, and the children’s heart rates during the procedure. An independent-samples t-test and Mann-Whitney U test (depending on the data distribution) were used to analyze the data. Results. The post-procedural CFS was significantly lower (p < 0.001) in the intervention group (proportion of children with no anxiety = 78.6%) than in the control group (56.8%). The anxiety reduction, NRS pain and satisfaction scores, and heart rates showed no significant differences between the control group and the intervention group. Subanalyses showed an increased effect of VR on anxiety levels in young patients, females, upper limb fractures, and those who had had previous plaster treatment. Conclusion. VR effectively reduces the anxiety levels of children in the plaster room, especially in young girls. No statistically significant effects were seen regarding pain, heart rate, or satisfaction scores. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(7):728–734

The management of children’s fractures has evolved as a result of better health education, changes in lifestyle, improved implant technology and the changing expectations of society. This review focuses on the changes seen in paediatric fractures, including epidemiology, the increasing problems of obesity, the mechanisms of injury, non-accidental injuries and litigation. We also examine the changes in the management of fractures at three specific sites: the supracondylar humerus, femoral shaft and forearm. There has been an increasing trend towards surgical stabilisation of these fractures. The reasons for this are multifactorial, including societal expectations of a perfect result and reduced hospital stay. Reduced hospital stay is beneficial to the social, educational and psychological needs of the child and beneficial to society as a whole, due to reduced costs. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2015; 97-B:442–8

We investigated whether, in the management of stable paediatric fractures of the forearm, flexible casts that can be removed at home are as clinically effective, cost-effective and acceptable to both patient and parent as management using a cast conventionally removed in hospital. A single-centre randomised controlled trial was performed on 317 children with a mean age of 9.3 years (2 to 16). No significant differences were seen in the change in Childhood Health Assessment Questionnaire index score (p = 0.10) or EuroQol 5-Dimensions domain scores between the two groups one week after removal of the cast or the absolute scores at six months. There was a significantly lower overall median treatment cost in the group whose casts were removed at home (£150.88 (. sem. 1.90) vs £251.62 (. sem. 2.68); p <  0.001). No difference was seen in satisfaction between the two groups (p = 0.48). Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2013;95-B:1714–20

Aim. To determine if the instigation of Magnetic Resonance Extremity (MRE) scanning in our unit as part of the management of suspected paediatric scaphoid fractures has prevented overuse of splints or casts reduced unnecessary clinic appointments and saved our department financially. Methods. Children with traumatic anatomical snuffbox tenderness and negative radiographs are seen 10 days following injury having been given a Futura® splint. If repeat radiographs are negative with on-going positive clinical findings the child has an MRE scan, which is usually reported the same day. If negative, the splint is removed on that day, but if positive, a cast is applied and the child referred onto paediatric fracture clinic. Results. Over a one-year period, 65 acute injuries were referred for MRE scanning. Fourteen bony injuries (22%) were identified including 10 scaphoid, 1 capitate and 3 distal radius fractures. The delay until MRE scanning averaged 11 days from emergency department and 14 days from outpatient clinic. Of these positive cases, the average time to clinic was 15 days equating to an average of 5 weeks from injury to orthopaedic review. The saving of orthopaedic clinics offsets the cost of the MRE scan by £5000 per annum. Fractures were identified in 22% of patients referred for MRE scanning with normal radiographs. Conclusion. The practice of streamlined MRE scanning for suspected paediatric scaphoid fractures can tailor management more efficiently. It has reduced the length of immobilisation in those normal cases and eradicated the need for continuing orthopaedic clinic review without increasing costs

Aim. Although non-union is a devastating and costly consequence of trauma for the child, family and society it is felt to be a rare complication in children. Currently there is no data available in the literature regarding its incidence either per fracture or per head of population. Should we be taking paediatric fracture non-union more seriously regarding research, resource allocation and informed consent? Our aim was to determine the incidence of non-union per child and per fracture. Method. In Scotland Information Services Division (NHS Scotland) records every inpatient admission by ICD-10 diagnosis. As almost all fracture non-unions require intervention ISD provides accurate non-union figures by site and age. However, many fractures are treated as outpatients. Using local data of overall fracture numbers we were able to calculate a ratio of inpatient to total fracture numbers and apply this nationally. Results. Over a 5-year period there were 180 cases of non-union between the ages of 0–14 years, (4.21/100,000pa) and an incidence of 15,335 fractures/100,000pa giving an overall risk of 0.24% non-union per fracture. The risk of non-union per fracture did not change throughout childhood but notably increased in the late teenage years (15–19yrs). Both the incidence of fractures and non-union were far greater in boys, however incidence of non-union per fracture was similar in both sexes in childhood. Non-union per fracture was twice as frequent in the lower than upper limb, this trend reversed in the 15–19 year age group. Conclusion. The annual incidence of fractures in children is 15.3%, more frequent in the upper than lower limb; increasing with age, particularly in boys. The risk of non-union is around 1/400 per upper limb and 1/250 per lower limb fracture in childhood. Fracture non-union is rare in the paediatric population but even so 4.2 cases would be expected per 100,000 population or 240 cases per 100,000 fractures

Aim. Paediatric fractures are common but those occurring in non-ambulant children are associated with higher rates of Non Accidental Injury (NAI). There is little published on the mechanisms of injury associated with accidental fracture in young children. This study explores the aetiology of long bone fractures in non-ambulant children. Methods. This retrospective multicentre study looked at children aged ≤18 months presenting to three hospitals over 3 years (2009 to 2011). Information was gathered on age, gender, fracture type, injury mechanism, final diagnosis, treatment and details of screening for NAI. Results. 147 children were identified who were ≤18 months old (mean 12 months). There were 32 femoral, 37 tibial, 43 forearm, 17 humeral, 16 clavicular and 3 fibular fractures. We identified 6 confirmed cases of NAI and 7 pathological fractures (osteopenia of prematurity or osteogenesis imperfecta). 5/64 children aged ≤12 months old had NAI compared with 1/83 in those aged >12 months. All 7 pathological fractures occurred in the ≤12 months group. NAI or pathological fracture was more likely in ≤12 months group compared to those >12 months (p=0.0002) Of the 12 children with no clear mechanism of injury, 5 had NAI and 3 had pathological fractures. In 39/147 children NAI was considered in the documentation and 29 had a paediatric review. Falls from beds and change mats were more common in ≤12 months group, as well as transverse femoral fractures; caused when those carrying the child slipped downstairs and applied a sudden bending force to the held leg. In those >12 months falls from chairs, down steps, in playgrounds or on trampolines were more common. 12/147 fractures were caused directly by other children (6 in each group). Conclusion. Our study identified causes of accidental long-bone fracture in non-ambulant children. In cases where there is no clear mechanism of injury, NAI must be carefully excluded

Aims. The aim of this study was to report the clinical, functional and radiological outcomes of children and adolescents with tibial fractures treated using the Ilizarov method. Patients and Methods. Between 2013 and 2016 a total of 74 children with 75 tibial fractures underwent treatment at our major trauma centre using an Ilizarov frame. Demographic and clinical information from a prospective database was supplemented by routine functional and psychological assessment and a retrospective review of the notes and radiographs. Results. Of the 75 fractures, 26 (35%) were open injuries, of which six (8%) had segmental bone loss. There were associated physeal injuries in 18 (24%), and 12 (16%) involved conversion of treatment following failure of previous management. The remaining children had a closed unstable fracture or significant soft-tissue compromise. The median follow-up was 16 months (7 to 31). All fractures united with a median duration in a frame of 3.6 months (interquartile range 3.1 to 4.6); there was no significant difference between the types of fracture and the demographics of the patients. There were no serious complications and no secondary procedures were required to achieve union. Health-related quality of life measures were available for 60 patients (80%) at a minimum of six months after removal of the frame. These indicated a good return to function (median Paediatric quality of life score, 88.0; interquartile range 70.3 to 100). Conclusion. The Ilizarov method is a safe, effective and reliable method for the treatment of complex paediatric tibial fractures. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2018;100-B:396–403

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The aim of this study was to describe the incidence of refractures among children, following fractures of all long bones, and to identify when the risk of refracture decreases.

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To investigate the risk factors for unsuccessful radial head reduction (RHR) in children with chronic Monteggia fractures (CMFs) treated surgically.

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The aim of this study was to report a complete overview of both incidence, fracture distribution, mode of injury, and patient baseline demographics of paediatric distal forearm fractures to identify age of risk and types of activities leading to injury.

Purpose. This study evaluated the acceptability of performing manipulations with intranasal diamorphine and inhaled Entonox to parents of children presenting to our Emergency Department. Method. 65 fractures were manipulated in the Emergency Department in a 4-month timespan. Parents were invited to complete a questionnaire to indicate their experience with the procedure. Fracture position post-reduction was calculated as well as conversion rate to surgery. 32 patients who were admitted and had their forearm fractures managed in theatre were also asked to complete the questionnaire as a comparison group. Results. Overall response rate was 82% . 100% of parents of children who had a manipulation in the emergency department would recommend the treatment to parents of children with similar injuries. Relative risk of perceived distress to parents was 2.42 (0.8–7.2) with manipulation in the emergency department compared to theatre management. Relative risk of distress to the child was 1.45 (0.7–3.3) with manipulation in the emergency department compared to theatre management. This was not statistically significant. Mean (S.D.) fracture displacement was 29.2 (13.0)° pre reduction and 5.8 (5.9)° post reduction. Mean (S.D.) length of stay was 5.5 (3.2) hours from time of injury to discharge for patients receiving manipulation in the Emergency Department and 27.9 (14.3) hours for patients receiving procedures in theatre (p< 0.001). Overall, parents and children were satisfied about manipulations in the Emergency Department. Operative re-intervention rate was 2% when protocol violations were excluded. Reduction was as effective as previous reports and within acceptable treatment limits. Conclusion. Manipulation of paediatric forearm fracture is an effective and acceptable technique when performed with a diamorphine and Entonox protocol

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We aimed to evaluate the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in children with supracondylar humeral fractures (SCHFs), who were treated following the recommendations of the Paediatric Comprehensive AO Classification, and to assess if HRQoL was associated with AO fracture classification, or fixation with a lateral external fixator compared with closed reduction and percutaneous pinning (CRPP).

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This observational study examines the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic upon the paediatric trauma burden of a district general hospital. We aim to compare the nature and volume of the paediatric trauma during the first 2020 UK lockdown period with the same period in 2019.

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The aim of this study was to clarify the factors that predict the development of avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femoral head in children with a fracture of the femoral neck.