The energy-storing human Achilles tendon and equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) show no adaptation to exercise unlike muscle and bone, and are prone to injury. Injury involves microdamage accumulation until there is sufficient weakening for rupture to occur during normal athletic activity. Anatomically opposing positional tendons, such as the common digital extensor tendon (CDET) in the horse rarely suffer exercise–induced injury. Tenocytes maintain the extra-cellular matrix, but in energy-storing tendons they appear unable to adequately repair microdamage as it occurs. Tenocytes have been classified subjectively into 3 subtypes on the basis of histological nuclear morphology. Long, thin type 1 cells are thought to be less synthetically active than cigar-shaped type 2 cells, but their exact morphology and relative proportions in different tendon sites and ages has not been clearly defined. We hypothesised that tenocytes are separable into morphologically distinct subtypes, reflecting differences in age and functional requirements within and between specific tendons. Samples were taken from tensional and compressed regions of the SDFT and CDET of 5 neonates, 5 foals (1–6 m), 5 young adults (2–6 y) and 5 old horses (18–33 y) Cell nuclei were counted and measured in digital images from histological sections by computerised image analysis. Total tenocyte densities and proportions of the 3 subtypes were calculated for each age group, as were nuclear length:width ratios. Length:width ratio distributions for all horses were evaluated using a normality test followed by a paired t-test. There was a significantly higher total cellularity in the SDFT than the CDET, with a higher proportion of type 1 tenocytes in the CDET. With age, total cellularity decreased in all tendon sites and an increase in the proportion of type 1 tenocytes was observed in tensional regions. Foal and neonatal tendons contained significantly higher proportions of type 2 tenocytes than older tendons. The morphology of the two main subtypes in all age groups was significantly different; type 1 tenocytes had a higher nuclear length:width ratio (mean ± SD = 9.6 ± 2.5) than type 2 (mean ± SD =4.7 ±1.1) (p< 0.001). We were able to objectively separate tenocytes into 3 distinct subtypes based on nuclear length:width ratio measurements. There were significant differences in proportions of subtypes with tendon site and age. The positional tendon had significantly lower cellularity and a higher proportion of type 1 tenocytes; these cells may be less functionally active but sufficient to maintain the matrix in a tendon which is not subjected to high levels of strain. The SDFT continues to grow up to 2 years of age and is subjected to high strains, explaining the need for relatively higher proportions of type 2 cells. There is however an age-related increase in type 1 cells in both tendons which may explain an inability of the adult energy-storing tendon to adapt to exercise and to repair microdamage. Understanding the stimulus for age-related changes in tenocyte subtype proportions in tendons with different functions may help us understand the pathogenesis of exercise-induced tendon injury and to develop more appropriate training regimens

Objectives. Platelet-rich fibrin matrix (PRFM) has been proved to enhance tenocyte proliferation but has mixed results when used during rotator cuff repair. The optimal PRFM preparation protocol should be determined before clinical application. To screen the best PRFM to each individual’s tenocytes effectively, small-diameter culture wells should be used to increase variables. The gelling effect of PRFM will occur when small-diameter culture wells are used. A co-culture device should be designed to avoid this effect. Methods. Tenocytes harvested during rotator cuff repair and blood from a healthy volunteer were used. Tenocytes were seeded in 96-, 24-, 12-, and six-well plates and co-culture devices. Appropriate volumes of PRFM, according to the surface area of each culture well, were treated with tenocytes for seven days. The co-culture device was designed to avoid the gelling effect that occurred in the small-diameter culture well. Cell proliferation was analyzed by water soluble tetrazolium-1 (WST-1) bioassay. Results. The relative quantification (condition/control) of WST-1 assay on day seven revealed a significant decrease in tenocyte proliferation in small-diameter culture wells (96 and 24 wells) due to the gelling effect. PRFM in large-diameter culture wells (12 and six wells) and co-culture systems induced a significant increase in tenocyte proliferation compared with the control group. The gelling effect of PRFM was avoided by the co-culture device. Conclusion. When PRFM and tenocytes are cultured in small-diameter culture wells, the gelling effect will occur and make screening of personalized best-fit PRFM difficult. This effect can be avoided with the co-culture device. Cite this article: C-H. Chiu, P. Chen, W-L. Yeh, A. C-Y. Chen, Y-S. Chan, K-Y. Hsu, K-F. Lei. The gelling effect of platelet-rich fibrin matrix when exposed to human tenocytes from the rotator cuff in small-diameter culture wells and the design of a co-culture device to overcome this phenomenon. Bone Joint Res 2019;8:216–223. DOI: 10.1302/2046-3758.85.BJR-2018-0258.R1

Introduction: Tendon tissue engineering entails the generation of a highly ordered collagen matrix with several organization scales that confer the tendon its mechanical functionality. Endogenous production of proteoglycans account for the typical microscopic organization in bundles of the tendon extracellular matrix, as they prevent lateral fusion of collagen fibril by binding the shaft of the fibres and promoting tip to tip fusion. The approach developed in this study is to rely on this molecular endogenous production and to induce a supramolecular uniaxial alignment of collagen fibres bundles with the help of specially designed scaffolds under continuous fluid shear stress. Methods: Microchannel chitosan scaffolds were produced by casting 2% chitosan gel on a mould equipped with stainless steel needles array that was imaged by optical coherence tomography with a resolution at ~10microns. From OCT measurements, regularly spaced microchannels with clearly delimited boundaries are obtained inside a microporous core of chitosan. By varying the number and the diameter of needles (from 250 μm (microns)to 500 μm (microns)) different types of microstructure have been produced. Microchannels scaffolds were seeded with primary tenocytes explanted from pig tendons and cultured in static culture, as nonstimulated group, and in a perfusion bioreactor. Results: There was a general increase in the channels occupation ratio for the group stimulated by perfusion, and inversely proportional to the microchannel diameter. Tenocytes were able to proliferate and to produce collagen extracellular matrix from the inner surface of the microchannel up to the whole channel volume. Conclusion: The proposed microstructure was appropriate for tendon engineering and its channel structure is adequate for direct OCT monitoring

Background and objectives: Tenocytes change their structure, composition and mechanical properties to adapt to mechanical loading. Voltage gated and mecha-nosensitive ion channels may play a key role in human tenocytes to regulate some or all initial responses to mechanical stimulation. To date, there has been no direct investigation of ion channel expression by human tenocytes. Methods: Human tenocytes were cultured from patellar tendon samples harvested from five patients undergoing routine total knee replacement surgery (mean age: 66 years; range 63-73 years). RT-PCR, Western Blotting and whole cell electrophysiological studies were performed to investigate the expression of different classes of ion channels within tenocytes. Results: Human tenocytes express mRNA and protein encoding voltage operated calcium channel (VOCCs) sub-units (Ca alpha 1A, Ca alpha 1C, Ca alpha 1D, Ca alpha2 delta1) and the mechanosensitive tandem pore domain potassium channel (2PK+) TREK-1. They exhibit whole cell currents consistent with the functional expression of these channels. In addition, other ionic currents were detected within these tenocytes consistent with the expression of voltage gated potassium channels, voltage gated sodium channels, and other outwardly rectifying leak currents. Discussion and conclusions: Human tendon cells show increased levels of intracellular calcium when stress is applied to them. One of the mechanisms by which this occurs is by the influx of extracellular calcium into the cell via ion channels. VOCCs and TREK channels have been implicated in mechanotransduction signalling pathways in numerous connective tissue cell types. This study suggests that these mechanisms may be present in human tenocytes. In addition, human tenocytes may express other channel currents. Ion channels may represent potential targets for the pharmacological management of chronic tendinopathies

Tendon injuries present a major clinical challenge, as they necessitate surgical intervention and are prone to fibrotic progression. Despite advances in physical therapy and surgical technique, tendons fail to return to full native functioning, underlining the need for a biological therapeutic to improve tendon healing. Myofibroblasts are activated fibroblasts that participate in the proliferative and remodeling phases of wound healing, and while these matrix-producing cells are essential for proper healing, they are also linked to fibrotic initiation. A subset of tenocytes has been shown to give rise to the myofibroblast fate, and potentially contribute to fibrotic tendon healing. A viable anti-fibrotic therapy in other tissues has been reprogramming the fibroblast-myofibroblast differentiation route, avoiding a more pro-fibrotic myofibroblast phenotype. Thus, defining the molecular programs that underlie both physiological and pathological tendon healing is critical for the development of potential pharmacologic treatments. Towards that end, we have taken advantage of spatial transcriptomics, using the tenocyte marker Scleraxis as a tool, and have outlined three major spatiotemporally distinct tenocyte differentiation trajectories (synthetic, proliferative, and reactive) following acute tendon injury in mouse FDL. We have further outlined key transcriptional controls that may be manipulated to alter the differentiation process and influence the resulting myofibroblast phenotype, thereby promoting regenerative tendon healing.

Introduction and Objective

The rupture of the anterior cruciate ligament is a common sports injury and surgical reconstruction is often required to restore full function of the knee. Hamstring tendons are usually used as autografts. In addition to knee pain and stiffness, infections are feared complications after surgery. Incubation of the autograft in a vancomycin solution until implantation reduced the infection rate by about ten-fold. Recent studies showed no negative effect of vancomycin on the biomechanical properties of porcine tendons. A negative effect of high vancomycin concentrations on chondrocytes and osteoblast is reported, but the effect on tendon and tenocytes is not known.

Anterior cruciate ligament injury is the most common and economically costly sport injuries, frequently requiring expensive surgery and rehabilitation. Post-operative knee septic arthritis represents a serious complication with an incidence rate between 0.14% and 1.7%. A common practice to avoid septic arthritis is the “vancomycin wrap”, consisting in the soaking of the graft for 10–15 minutes within a sterile gauze swab previously saturated with 5 mg/mL vancomycin. Even though several studies have been conducted to investigate vancomycin toxicity on different musculoskeletal tissues or cells, little is known about the effect of such antimicrobial on tendon-derived cells.

The aim of this study was to determine the in vitro toxicity of different concentrations of vancomycin at different time points on human primary tenocytes (hTCs).

hTCs were isolated from hamstring grafts of patients undergoing anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. After expansion, cells were treated with different concentrations of vancomycin (2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 mg/mL) for 10, 15, 30 and 60 minutes. In vitro toxicity was evaluated measuring: metabolic activity through the reduction of 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT Assay); cytotoxicity (Live/Dead assay); and cell apoptosis (Annexin V apoptosis kit).

The metabolic activity of hTCs was affected by vancomycin treatment starting from 10 mg/mL at all time points (p < 0.05) and dropped down at 100 mg/mL at all time points (0.05 < p < 0.001). Cells viability resulted to be unaffected only by 2.5 mg/mL vancomycin at all time points. Vancomycin resulted to be cytotoxic starting from 10 mg/mL after 15 minutes of treatment and at all higher concentrations under study at all time points. Cells died when treated with vancomycin concentrations higher than 5 mg/mL but not through apoptosis, as confirmed by negative staining for Annexin V.

In our experimental conditions, vancomycin resulted to be toxic on hTCs at concentrations higher than 5 mg/mL. The use of this antibiotic on tendons to prevent infections could be useful and safe for resident cells if used at a concentration of 2.5 mg/mL up to 1 hour of treatment.

Depletion of Scleraxis-lineage (ScxLin) cells in adult tendon recapitulates age-related decrements in cell density, ECM organization and composition. However, depletion of ScxLin cells improves tendon healing, relative to age-matched wildtype mice, while aging impairs healing. Therefore, we examined whether ScxLin depletion and aging result in comparable shifts in the tendon cell environment and defined the intrinsic programmatic shifts that occur with natural aging, to define the key regulators of age-related healing deficits.

ScxLin cells were depleted in 3M-old Scx-Cre+; Rosa-DTRF/+ mice via diphtheria toxin injections into the hindpaw. Rosa-DTRF/+ mice were used as wildtype (WT) controls. Tendons were harvested from 6M-old ScxLin depleted and WT mice, and 21-month-old (21M) C57Bl/6 mice (aged). FDL tendons (n=6) were harvested for single-cell RNAseq, pooled, collagenase digested, and sorted for single cell capture. Data was processed using Cell Ranger and then aligned to the annotated mouse genome (mm10). Filtering, unsupervised cell clustering, and differential gene expression (DEG) analysis were performed using Seurat.

Following integration and sub-clustering of the tenocyte populations, five distinct subpopulations were observed. In both ScxLin depletion and aging, ‘ECM synthesizers’ and ‘ECM organizers’ populations were lost, consistent with disruptions in tissue homeostasis and altered ECM composition. However, in ScxLin depleted mice retention of a ‘specialized ECM remodeler’ population was observed, while aging tendon cells demonstrated inflammatory skewing with retention of a ‘pro-inflammatory tenocyte population’. In addition, enrichment of genes associated with protein misfolding clearance were observed in aged tenocytes. Finally, a similar inflammatory skewing was observed in aged tendon-resident macrophages, with this skewing not observed in ScxLin depleted tendons.

These data suggest that loss of ‘ECM synthesizer’ populations underpins disruptions in tendon homeostasis. However, retention of ‘specialized remodelers’ promotes enhanced healing (ScxLin depletion), while inflammatory skewing may drive the impaired healing response in aged tendons.

Peri-tendinous injection of local anaesthetic, both alone and in combination with corticosteroids, is commonly performed in the treatment of tendinopathies. Previous studies have shown that local anaesthetics and corticosteroids are chondrotoxic, but their effect on tenocytes remains unknown. We compared the effects of lidocaine and ropivacaine, alone or combined with dexamethasone, on the viability of cultured bovine tenocytes. Tenocytes were exposed to ten different conditions: 1) normal saline; 2) 1% lidocaine; 3) 2% lidocaine; 4) 0.2% ropivacaine; 5) 0.5% ropivacaine; 6) dexamethasone (dex); 7) 1% lidocaine+dex; 8) 2% lidocaine+dex; 9) 0.2% ropivacaine+dex; and 10) 0.5% ropivacaine+dex, for 30 minutes. After a 24-hour recovery period, the viability of the tenocytes was quantified using the CellTiter-Glo viability assay and fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) for live/dead cell counts. A 30-minute exposure to lidocaine alone was significantly toxic to the tenocytes in a dose-dependent manner, but a 30-minute exposure to ropivacaine or dexamethasone alone was not significantly toxic. Dexamethasone potentiated ropivacaine tenocyte toxicity at higher doses of ropivacaine, but did not potentiate lidocaine tenocyte toxicity. As seen in other cell types, lidocaine has a dose-dependent toxicity to tenocytes but ropivacaine is not significantly toxic. Although dexamethasone alone is not toxic, its combination with 0.5% ropivacaine significantly increased its toxicity to tenocytes. These findings might be relevant to clinical practice and warrant further investigation

Tendinopathy is a tendon pathology often resulting from a failed healing response to tendon injury. Activated protein C (APC) is a natural anti-coagulant with anti-inflammatory and wound healing promoting functions, which are mainly mediated by its receptors, endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR) and protease activated receptors (PARs). This study aimed to determine whether APC stimulates tenocyte healing and if so, to assess the involvement of the receptors.

Mouse-tail tenocytes were isolated from 3-week-old wild type (WT), PAR- 1 knockout (KO) and PAR-2 KO mice. The expression of EPCR, PAR-1 and −2 and the effect of APC on tenocytes tendon healing and the underlying mechanisms were investigated by Reverse transcription real time PCR, western blot, 3- (4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, zymography, and scratch wound healing/ migration assay.

When compared to WT cells, PAR-1 KO tenocytes showed increased cell proliferation (3.3-fold, p<0.0001), migration (2.7-fold, p<0.0001) and wound healing (3-fold, p<0.0001), whereas PAR-2 KO cells displayed decreased cell proliferation (0.6-fold, p<0.05) and no change in cell migration or wound healing. APC at 1 μg/ml stimulated WT and PAR-1 KO tenocyte proliferation (~1.3, respectively, p<0.05) and wound healing (~1.3-fold, respectively, p<0.05), and additionally promoted PAR1-KO cell migration (1.4-fold, p<0.0001). APC only increased the migration (2-fold, p<0.05) of PAR-2 KO tenocytes. The activation of AKT, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)-2, and glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-β3, the intracellular molecules that are associated with cell survival/growth, and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 that is related to cell migration and wound healing, were increased in all three cell lines in response to APC treatment.

These findings show that PAR-1 and PAR-2 act differentially in tenocyte proliferation/migration/wound healing. APC likely promotes tenocyte proliferation/ wound healing via PAR-2, not PAR-1.

As we grow older, the risk of tendon degeneration and injuries increases, which can result in pain, disability, healthcare cost, and lost productivity. Even after surgical repair the results are often unsatisfactory. The cellular reasons for the differences in the healing potential, however, are not well studied. To get a deeper insight into the biological characteristics of tenocyte-like cells from different patient groups we established a biobank with material from over 150 human donors. The patients/donors suffered from rotator cuff tears and were operated to restore the function. A proportion of the isolated cells showed stem cell-like characteristics and was able to differentiate into the osteoblastic, chondrogenic and adipogenic linage. Investigating the differentiation potential of the cells with regard to donor characteristics, we were able to demonstrate that age, sex but also the “degeneration” has an impact of the cellular potential. A possibility to stimulate the cellular activity is the application of growth factors, as already clinically used for stimulation of bone healing. Therefore, the responsiveness of the cells to the growth factors Bone Morphogenetic protein-2/7 (BMP-2/7) was analysed in vitro. Independent of the donor characteristics, the cells responded to the BMP-stimulation by increased proliferation and collagen-1 synthesis. However, cells isolated from donors with high fatty infiltration of the muscle or older females were less responsive. Looking into the intracellular signalling pathway, the data showed that the BMP-signal is mainly mediated by the canonical-pathway with samd8 playing a major role. This basic research gives first information regarding the differences in tenocytes biology with respect to the donor and is important for the understanding of tendon regeneration and the future development of new treatment strategies.

Aims

Myokine developmental endothelial locus-1 (DEL-1) has been documented to alleviate inflammation and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in various cell types. However, the effects of DEL-1 on inflammation, ER stress, and apoptosis in tenocytes remain unclear.

Introduction and Objective

Achilles tendon defect is difficult problem for orthopedic surgeon, and therefore the development of new treatments is desirable. Platelet-rich fibrin (PRF), dense fibrin scaffold composed of a fibrin matrix containing many growth factors, is recently used as regenerative medicine preparation. However, few data are available on the usefulness of PRF on Achilles tendon healing after injury. The objective of this study is to examine whether PRF promotes the healing of Achilles tendon defect in vivo and evaluated the effects of PRF on tenocytes in vitro.

Summary Statement

We have shown that integrin mRNA expression is regulated by the application of mechanical load. This indicates that mechanical loading may modify cell sensitivity to perceive further load through increased interaction with the ECM.

Tendon injuries are associated with the formation of inferior, disorganized scar tissue at the tendon bone insertion site and high failure rates. Two major processes are discussed being key players: the inflammatory reaction upon tear and the remodeling process of the tendon. In a previous study we demonstrated that the profile of MMPs and TIMPs, being key factors of tendon modeling and remodeling, is altered in tenocytes of rotator cuff tears from donors with higher age (>65 years) and degenerative status (high degree of muscle fatty infiltration)[1]. But do these cells also show different expression of inflammatory cytokines or react different upon cytokine stimulation? The aim of our project was to analyze the expression of inflammatory cytokines in human tenocyte-like cells (hTLCs) on mRNA-level and the responsiveness to cytokine stimulation regarding differences between varying donor characteristics such as age, sex and the degenerative status of the tendon.

TLCs were isolated from SSP tendon biopsies from 16 male and 14 female donors undergoing arthroscopic or open shoulder surgery. Cells from each donor (passage 1 or 2) were seeded in a 6-well plate and RNA was isolated after 7 days of culture. Quantitative Real-Time PCR was performed to analyze the expression of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-33, TGF-β1 and COX-2. Furthermore, hTLCs of 12 male donors were stimulated for 3 days with a combination of TNF-α and IFN-γ (10ng/ml). The effect of the cytokines was analyzed by flow cytometry regarding surface marker expression: ICAM (CD54), VCAM (CD106), and Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)-class I and MHC-class II. Statistics: Mann-Whitney-U-Test, Spearman´s-Rho-correlation, p≤0.05.

Gene expression analysis revealed high levels of IL-6, TGF-β1 and COX-2 in hTLCs but low expression of TNF-α and IL-10. No differences in the expression of the inflammatory cytokines were found between low and high fatty infiltration or with respect to age. The stimulation of the hTLCs with TNF-α and IFN-γ increased the number of ICAM and VCAM positive cells up to 100% and 97±5%, respectively. MHC-class II was not expressed on unstimulated cells but 77±17% MHC-class II positive cells were present after stimulation. All unstimulated cells were positive for MHC-class I, but the MFI (Mean Fluorescent Intensity) increased after stimulation. No significant difference in the expression of surface markers was detected when comparing tenocytes of donors with low and high muscle fatty infiltration.

In contrast to the significant changes in expression levels of MMPs and TIMPs in tenocytes of donors with different age and degenerative status[1], we could not detect any significant changes in the expression of inflammatory cytokines or in the responsiveness of these tenocytes upon cytokine stimulation. All tenocytes showed the potential to respond to inflammatory processes. This indicates that the response of the tenocytes to inflammatory stimuli seems to be independent of donor characteristics, whereas the tendon remodeling might depend on age and degenerative status of the donor.

Injury to the core region of energy-storing tendons is a frequent occurrence in both human and equine athletes, the incidence of which increases with age. Such energy-storing tendons include the human Achilles tendon (AT) and the equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT). By definition, energy-storing tendons experience high strains during high-speed athletic activity. In contrast, anatomically opposing tendons (“positional” tendons), such as the common digital extensor tendon (CDET) in the horse and extensor digitorum longus tendon in man act only to transmit muscular force and rarely suffer exercise–induced injury. Functional adaptation of muscle and bone in response to exercise is well – documented, but there has been no convincing evidence to suggest that the energy-storing tendons in adults have the ability to adapt to exercise. We hypothesised that adaptive increases in tenocyte cellularity would occur in the energy-storing and positional tendons of young horses subjected to three specific exercise regimens. Samples were taken from midmeta-carpal regions of the SDFT (periphery and core) and CDET of young Thoroughbred horses from the following groups. Group 1: 6 horses exercised on a high-speed treadmill for 18 months from 21.3 months of age (SD 1.1) with 6 age-matched controls that underwent walking exercise only (long-term); Group 2: 6 horses exercised on a high-speed treadmill for 18 weeks from 19.4 months of age (SD 0.6) with 6 age-matched controls that underwent walking exercise only (short-term) and Group 3: 6 horses trained on pasture in New Zealand for 18 months beginning at 7–10 days of age, with 6 age-matched controls kept at pasture with no additional enforced exercise (Global Equine Research Alliance). Tenocyte nuclei were counted and measured in digital images from histological sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin, by computerised image analysis. Tenocyte densities (per mm2) for exercised and control groups for each study were evaluated using paired t-tests. Tenocyte density was significantly higher in the CDET of exercised horses in Group 3 (mean ± SD =260.4 ± 23.4) compared with the non – exercised controls (mean ± SD =226.9 ± 23.8) (p < 0.01). There was no such difference in the SDFT (core or periphery). There was also no significant exercise-related difference in tenocyte density in either the SDFT (core or periphery) or CDET for Groups 1 or 2. No previous data is available on the effect of exercise on tenocyte populations in equine tendons. The lack of other adaptive changes in previous studies of mature equine tendons had raised the question as to whether immature tendons would be more able to adapt to mechanical stimuli. In this study we were able to show that beginning training of horses shortly after birth (Group 3) stimulated an adaptive response by tenocytes in the positional CDET but not the SDFT. The inability of energy-storing tendons to show functional adaptation to exercise in immature or mature animals may explain the high incidence of strain-induced injury. Understanding the pathway by which exercise-related increases in tenocyte densities occur in immature positional but not energy-storing tendons may increase our understanding of the pathogenesis of strain-induced tendon injury.

Objectives

Intra-articular injections of local anaesthetics (LA), glucocorticoids (GC), or hyaluronic acid (HA) are used to treat osteoarthritis (OA). Contrast agents (CA) are needed to prove successful intra-articular injection or aspiration, or to visualize articular structures dynamically during fluoroscopy. Tranexamic acid (TA) is used to control haemostasis and prevent excessive intra-articular bleeding. Despite their common usage, little is known about the cytotoxicity of common drugs injected into joints. Thus, the aim of our study was to investigate the effects of LA, GC, HA, CA, and TA on the viability of primary human chondrocytes and tenocytes in vitro.

Rotator cuff repair is performed to treat shoulder pain and disability. Failure of the tendon repair site is common; one strategy to improve healing is to enforce a period of post-operative immobilisation. Immobilisation may have unintended effects on tendon healing. Tenocytes under uniaxial strain form more organised collagen and up regulate expression of proliferative genes. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), an anti-oxidant that is a co-factor for collagen synthesis, has also been reported to enhance collagen deposition and organisation. The purpose of this study was to compare human tenocyte cultures exposed to uniaxial cyclical strain with or without slow-release ascorbic acid (ascorbyl-2 phosphate) to determine their individual and combined effects on tissue remodelling and expression of tissue repair genes. Rotator cuff tissues were collected from degenerative supraspinatus tears from eight patients. Tenocytes were incorporated into 3D type I collagen culture matrices. Cultures were divided into four groups: 1) ascorbic acid (0.6mMol/L) + strain (1%–20% uniaxial cyclic strain at 0.1 Hz), 2) ascorbic acid unstrained, 3) strain + vehicle 4) unstrained + vehicle. Samples were fixed in paraffin, stained with picrosirius red and analysed with circular polarising light. A second set of cultures were divided into three groups: 1) 0.5mM ascorbic acid, 2) 1mM ascorbic acid, 3) vehicle cultured for 24, 72, 120 and 168 hours. Cell-free collagen matrix was used as a control. Tenocyte proliferation was assessed using the water soluble tetrazolium-1 (WST1) assay and f tissue repair gene expression (TGFB1, COL1A1, FN1, COLIII, IGF2, MMP1, and MMP13), were analysed by qPCR. The data were analysed using a Split model ANOVA with contrast and bonferroni correction and a one-way ANOVAs and Tukey's test (p<0.05 was significant). Our results indicated that unstrained cultures with or without exposure to slow release ascorbic acid exhibited greater picrosirius red birifringency and an increase in collagen fiber deposition in a longitudinal orientation compared to strained tenocytes. We found that slow release ascorbic acid promoted significant dose and culture-time dependent increases in tenocyte proliferation (p<0.05) but no obvious enhancement in collagen deposition was evident over cultures without ascorbic acid supplementation. Based on these data, applying strain to tenocytes may result in less organised formation of collagen fibers, suggestive of fibrotic tissue, rather than tendon remodelling. This may indicate that a short period of immobilisation post-rotator cuff repair is beneficial for the healing of tendons. Exposure to slow release ascorbic acid enhanced tenocyte proliferation, suggesting that supplementation with Vitamin C may improve tendon repair post-injury or repair. Future studies will assess levels of tissue repair-associated proteins as well as comparing traumatic and degenerative rotator cuff tears to healthy uninjured rotator cuff tissue

Aims. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the in vitro effects of apocynin, an inhibitor of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NOX) and a downregulator of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), on high glucose-induced oxidative stress on tenocytes. Methods. Tenocytes from normal Sprague-Dawley rats were cultured in both control and high-glucose conditions. Apocynin was added at cell seeding, dividing the tenocytes into four groups: the control group; regular glucose with apocynin (RG apo+); high glucose with apocynin (HG apo+); and high glucose without apocynin (HG apo–). Reactive oxygen species production, cell proliferation, apoptosis and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of NOX1 and 4, and interleukin-6 (IL-6) were determined in vitro. Results. Expression of NOX1, NOX4, and IL-6 mRNA in the HG groups was significantly higher compared with that in the RG groups, and NOX1, NOX4, and IL-6 mRNA expression in the HG apo+ group was significantly lower compared with that in the HG apo– group. Cell proliferation in the RG apo+ group was significantly higher than in the control group and was also significantly higher in the HG apo+ group than in the HG apo– group. Both the ROS accumulation and the amounts of apoptotic cells in the HG groups were greater than those in the RG groups and were significantly less in the HG apo+ group than in the HG apo– group. Conclusion. Apocynin reduced ROS production and cell death via NOX inhibition in high-glucose conditions. Apocynin is therefore a potential prodrug in the treatment of diabetic tendinopathy. Cite this article:Bone Joint Res 2020;9(1):23–28

Tenocytes from several mammal species have been shown to be prone to phenotypic drift at early sub-culture passages. In the present study we compared allogenic and xenogenic serum supplementation suitability as a supplement for the in vitro expansion of equine tenocytes (eTCs), in combination with the presence or absence of crowding conditions. eTCs were isolated from superficial digital flexor tendon and expanded in normal growth medium containing DMEM, 10% appropriate serum, 1% penicillin/streptomycin solution. Isolation was performed by migration method in growth medium containing the selected serum. Silver staining, densitometry, zymography, immunofluorescence, metabolic activity, proliferation, viability and morphology were performed after 3, 5 and 7 days in culture with a seeding density of 10,000 cells/cm2. Treatment conditions were equine serum (ES) or foetal bovine serum (FBS), with or without 75 μg/mL of crowding agent carrageenan (CR). Viability and metabolic activity of eTCs were affected by FBS. eTCs in ES reached higher cell density than in FBS in day 7, especially with CR. Morphology of eTCs was maintained under different sera. Silver staining on pepsin digested cell layers shows that collagen type I deposition rate is remarkably enhanced in the presence of CR in all conditions. Immunofluorescence showed increased expression for collagen I, III, V and VI in both sera in the presence of CR. Deposition of all collagen types but type VI was increased by ES supplementation. We conclude that ES in combination with CR can represent a reliable choice for the ex vivo expansion of eTCs