Hypothesis: In severely the injured, there has been a move away from early total care to staged physiological and anatomic reconstruction, damage control orthopaedics (DCO). This seeks to limit the magnitude of the second hit insult resulting from operative treatment after trauma, deferring complex reconstructive work until a later stage. For femoral shaft fracture, this entails initial external fixation, to provide early skeletal stabilisation, and subsequent conversion to an intramedullary nail (IMN). Materials and Methods: Patients with femoral shaft fracture, who underwent primary IMN or DCO between 1996 and 2002 were identified from our database. Those with New Injury Severity Score (NISS) < 20 were excluded. The systemic inflammatory response (SIRS) and Marshall multi-organ failure scores (MMOFS) were calculated every 12h for 4 days. These systems have been previously correlated with outcome and complications in critical care. Results: 174 patients were included. The mean SIRS score was higher at each time period post operatively in the IMN group (p < 0.01). The MMOFS was slightly higher at each point in the DCO group, (only sig. at 48h). There was a higher incidence of pneumonia and mortality (significant p < 0.02), ARDS and MOF (both n.s.) in the DCO group, this being attributable to the higher incidence of head and thoracic injury (AIS severity 2 or more). The mean peak post-operative SIRS score was significantly higher in the IMN group than in the DCO group, both at primary procedure and conversion, as was the time with SIRS score above 1. The pre-op and peak post-op SIRS score correlated with the peak post op MMOFS score (p 0.0002). The conversion pre-op SIRS score correlated with post-operative peak SIRS score and MMOFS score (p 0.0001). On average, a significant rise in the MMOFS score did not occur following the conversion procedure. Conclusion: It would appear that despite having significantly more severe injuries, patients in the DCO group had a smaller, shorter postoperative systemic inflammatory response and suffered only slightly more pronounced organ failure than the IMN group. They did suffer more complications, but this was only significant for pneumonia. DCO patients undergoing conversion whilst their SIRS score was raised suffered the most pronounced subsequent inflammatory response and rise in organ failure score

Aims. The aim of this study was to determine the fracture haematoma (fxH) proteome after multiple trauma using label-free proteomics, comparing two different fracture treatment strategies. Methods. A porcine multiple trauma model was used in which two fracture treatment strategies were compared: early total care (ETC) and damage control orthopaedics (DCO). fxH was harvested and analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Per group, discriminating proteins were identified and protein interaction analyses were performed to further elucidate key biomolecular pathways in the early fracture healing phase. Results. The early fxH proteome was characterized by immunomodulatory and osteogenic proteins, and proteins involved in the coagulation cascade. Treatment-specific proteome alterations were observed. The fxH proteome of the ETC group showed increased expression of pro-inflammatory proteins related to, among others, activation of the complement system, neutrophil functioning, and macrophage activation, while showing decreased expression of proteins related to osteogenesis and tissue remodelling. Conversely, the fxH proteome of the DCO group contained various upregulated or exclusively detected proteins related to tissue regeneration and remodelling, and proteins related to anti-inflammatory and osteogenic processes. Conclusion. The early fxH proteome of the ETC group was characterized by the expression of immunomodulatory, mainly pro-inflammatory, proteins, whereas the early fxH proteome of the DCO group was more regenerative and osteogenic in nature. These findings match clinical observations, in which enhanced surgical trauma after multiple trauma causes dysbalanced inflammation, potentially leading to reduced tissue regeneration, and gained insights into regulatory mechanisms of fracture healing after severe trauma. Cite this article: Bone Joint Res 2024;13(5):214–225

Aims

The timing of surgical fixation in spinal fractures is a contentious topic. Existing literature suggests that early stabilization leads to reduced morbidity, improved neurological outcomes, and shorter hospital stay. However, the quality of evidence is low and equivocal with regard to the safety of early fixation in the severely injured patient. This paper compares complication profiles between spinal fractures treated with early fixation and those treated with late fixation.

There have been many advances in the resuscitation and early management of patients with severe injuries during the last decade. These have come about as a result of the reorganisation of civilian trauma services in countries such as Germany, Australia and the United States, where the development of trauma systems has allowed a concentration of expertise and research. The continuing conflicts in the Middle East have also generated a significant increase in expertise in the management of severe injuries, and soldiers now survive injuries that would have been fatal in previous wars. This military experience is being translated into civilian practice.

The aim of this paper is to give orthopaedic surgeons a practical, evidence-based guide to the current management of patients with severe, multiple injuries. It must be emphasised that this depends upon the expertise, experience and facilities available within the local health-care system, and that the proposed guidelines will inevitably have to be adapted to suit the local resources.

Background. Polytrauma patients are at high risk of systematic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) due to an exaggerated unbalanced immune response that can lead to multiple organ failure and increased mortality. This response is often heightened following acute surgical management as a result, damage-control orthopaedics (DCO) was born. This allows the patient to be stabilised using external fixation allowing physiology to improve. This systematic review aims to compare DCO against early total care (ETC) (<24hrs intramedullary nailing) in polytraumatised patients with femoral shaft fractures using a diagnosis of acute lung injury (ALI) as the primary outcome measure. Method. A systematic review of MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL and AMED was carried out to identify all English language studies comparing ETC versus DCO using ALI as the primary outcome measure. Two authors independently screened the studies and performed data extraction. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias tool and the Risk-of-Bias Assessment Tool for Non-randomised Studies. Results. Three studies were selected for final inclusion. One multicentre RCT demonstrated a significantly higher odds ratio (6.69) of ALI in the subgroup receiving ETC compared to DCO. The two other studies were retrospective case series with one reporting no significant difference and the second study reporting a significant reduction in ARDS when a DCO approach was used (7.8% vs 15.1%). Meta-analysis was not possible due to heterogeneity. Conclusions. This review supports evidence that in the more unstable patients (Injury Severity Score≥30) treated surgically for femoral shaft fractures in the first 24 hours, DCO may have a protective effect over ETC for ALI. However further studies with large sample sizes are needed to provide clarity on the subject area. Level of Evidence. 1. Ethics. No approval required given the nature of this study (systematic review)

Benefits of early stabilization of femoral shaft fractures, in mitigation of pulmonary and other complications, have been recognized over the past decades. Investigation into the appropriate level of resuscitation, and other measures of readiness for definitive fixation, versus a damage control strategy have been ongoing. These principles are now being applied to fractures of the thoracolumbar spine, pelvis, and acetabulum. Systems of trauma care are evolving to encompass attention to expeditious and safe management of not only multiply injured patients with these major fractures, but also definitive care for hip and periprosthetic fractures, which pose a similar burden of patient recumbency until stabilized. Future directions regarding refinement of patient resuscitation, assessment, and treatment are anticipated, as is the potential for data sharing and registries in enhancing trauma system functionality.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):361–364.

Algorithms for the treatment of multiply-injured patients with concomitant orthopaedic injuries have continued to evolve over the past several decades. Advances in surgical techniques and implants have revolutionised the treatment of specific musculoskeletal injuries. Improved understanding of the implications of applying these techniques to patients with compromised physiology has led to critical reevaluation of the issues surrounding definitive orthopaedic care. A discussion of these issues as they apply to the multiply-injured patient with associated femoral shaft fracture provides insight into how Damage Control Orthopaedics has evolved. As well as what questions remain unanswered in our ongoing efforts to decrease mortality and improve long-term functional recovery in this difficult and challenging patient population. While femur fracture patients in the 1950s and 1960s were often deemed ‘too sick’ for surgical treatment, the high morbidity and mortality associated with long-term traction as a primary treatment modality led to recognition of the benefits of early fracture care in the 1980s. Multiple studies demonstrating the benefit of early fixation of femur fractures in multiply-injured patients led to a dramatic shift in treatment protocols towards urgent, if not emergent, definitive stabilisation of the femur. However, weaknesses of these early studies exist and their results were often over-interpreted. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, evidence began to accumulate that early definitive treatment consisting of reamed intramedullary nailing of the femur might actually be detrimental in an at risk subgroup of patients. Early interpretation of these results led to a move toward ‘unreamed’ nails in multiply-injured patients in an effort to minimise the pulmonary impact of reaming. Our current level of understanding appears to indicate that there exists a much more complex interaction between multiple factors including patient characteristics, associated injuries, timing and mode of orthopaedic stabilisation employed. As the relative importance and influence of these multiple factors becomes clearer, our ability to appropriately select patients for early total care versus damage control orthopaedics should improve the potential for damaging physiological effects of treatment. In the meantime, application of the principles of damage control to those patients for whom it is clearly indicated, as well as to those for whom it may not be clear cut, appears to have minimal, if any, deleterious effect

Purpose. There are concerns with regard to the physiological effects of reamed intramedullary femoral fracture stabilisation in patients who have received a pulmonary injury. This large animal study used invasive monitoring techniques to obtain sensitive cardiopulmonary measurements and compared the responses to Early Total Care (reamed intramedullary femoral fracture fixation) to Damage Control Orthopaedics (external fixation), after the induction of acute lung injury. We hypothesised a greater cardiopulmonary response to intramedullary fracture fixation. Method. Acute lung injury (PaO2/FiO2 < 200 mmHg) was induced in 12 invasively monitored and terminally anaesthetised male sheep via the infusion of oleic acid into the right atrium. Each animal underwent surgical femoral osteotomy and fixation with either reamed intramedullary (n=6) or external fixation (n=6). Simultaneous haemodynamic and arterial blood-gas measurements were recorded at baseline and at 5, 30 and 60 minutes after fracture stabilisation. Results. The mean (S.E.) PaO2/FiO2 fell significantly (p<0.05) from 359(37) to 107 (23) and 382 (33) to 128 (18) in the externally fixated and intramedullary nailed groups respectively as a result of the acute lung injury. The further combined effect of surgical osteotomy and subsequent fracture fixation produced a mean (+/− S.E.) PaO2/FiO2 of 114 (21) and 113 (12), in the externally fixated and intramedullary nailed groups respectively, immediately after surgery. This was not significantly different either within or between groups. Similarly the pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) measured at 4.7 (0.9) and 4.2 (0.5) in the externally fixated and intramedullary nailed groups respectively after lung injury changed to 4.9 (0.7) and 4.3 (0.6) after surgical osteotomy and subsequent fracture fixation which, again was not significantly different either within or between groups. No significant difference in either PaO2/FiO2 or PVR was detected at the monitored 5, 30 and 60 minute intervals that followed fracture stabilisation. Conclusion. Against a background of standardised acute lung injury, there appeared to be no further deterioration produced by the method of isolated femoral fracture fixation in two sensitive physiological parameters commonly used by intensive care physicians

Introduction: The principles of fracture management in patients with multiple injuries continue to be of crucial importance. Early treatment of unstable patients with head, chest, abdomen or pelvic injuries with blood loss) followed by an immediate fracture fixation (“Early Total Care”) may be associated with a secondary life threatening posttraumatic systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS). We present our experience experience in the treatment strategy of polytraumatized patients with femoral shaft fracture. Patients and Methods: From 1995 to 2008 there were 137 polytraumatized patients with femoral shaft fracture treated in our hospital. The outcomes of their treatment were retrospectively analyzed in this study. Patients were grouped according the treatment strategies for stabilization of the femoral shaft fracture: Group A – 99 patients treated with early total care (ETC) - intramedullary nailing (IMN) within 24 h of injury Group B- 38 patients treated with temporary external fixation as a bridge to IMN (DCO surgery starting at 2005). Results: The groups were comparable regarding age, gender distribution and mechanism of injury. ISS was higher in group B (DCO) – 32,2 compared to group A (ETC) – 22,6. The patients in DCO group required significantly more fluids (14,2 L) then those in ETC (8,2 L) and blood (2,2 vs 1,3 L) in the initial 24 hours. Thoracic, abdominal or head injuries were accounted significantly higher number of patients submitted to DCO group from 2005 (24,2%) compared to ETC group (12,4%). Mean operative time for External Fixators was 40 minutes, 110 minutes for IMN. There was a significantly higher incidence of ARDS in ETC group −18,2% compared to DCO group – 8,6%. The incidence of multiple organ failure (MOF) was significantly lower in DCO group – 7,4% than in ETC group – 12,1 %. There were 3 unexpected deaths and 2 cases with conscious worsening in patients with head injury in ETC group. No significant differences in the incidence of local complications were found. Conclusions: Based on this study it seems that a significant reduction in incidence of general systemic complications (ARDS, MOF) was found in DCO group in comparison with ETC group, Changing of the treatment protocol from ETC to DCO is not associated with increased rate of local complications (pin-tract infections, delayed unions or nonunions). There is a lower complication rate in DCO Group despite higher ISS compared with the ETC Group, DCO surgery appears to be an viable alternative for polytraumatized patients with femoral shaft fracture

For femoral shaft fracture, damage control orthopaedics entails primary external fixation and subsequent conversion to an intramedullary device (IMN). Sub-clinical contamination of external fixator pin sites is common and it is argued that such an approach risks subsequent local infective complications. We aimed to determine the rate of wound infection following DCO procedures and primary IMN for femoral fracture stabilisation. Retrospective analysis of a prospectively assembled adult patient database was carried out. Inclusion criteria were femoral #, New Injury Severity Score (NISS) above 20 and survival more than 2 weeks. Two groups, damage control (DCO) and early total care (ETC) (Primary Nail), were formed. Contamination was positive culture from the wound or fixator pin-sites without clinical infection. Superficial infection was a combination of positive bacterial swabs and local or systemic signs of infection. Deep infection was any case requiring surgical intervention with a sub-group requiring removal of femoral metal work (ROMW) also defined. 173 patients met the criteria for inclusion, with 192 fractures (19 bilateral). The mean follow up was 19 months. Patients in the damage control group were more severely injured than those undergoing primary intramedullary nailing (NISS 36 vs 25, p 0.001). There were also more severe (Grade 3 A,B or C) local soft tissue injuries in this group (p 0.05). 98 of the 111 DCO patients underwent subsequent IMN. Others either died without conversion being appropriate, or it was elected to complete treatment with external fixation. The mean time of exchange an ex/fix to a nail was 14.1 days. Though contamination rates were higher in the DCO group (12.6% vs 3.7%, p 0.05), there was no excess of infective complications (11.1% vs 10.8%). Contamination increased significantly in patients who underwent conversion to IMN after 14 days. Grade 3 open injury was significantly associated with infection irrespective of treatment. This study demonstrates that infection rates following DCO for femoral fractures are not significantly different to those observed following primary intramedullary nailing. Whilst the overall risk of deep infection in the DCO group did not show any correlation with the timing of converting the external fixator to a nail, the risk of contamination was higher in patients where the exchange nailing was performed after a period of 2 weeks

Introduction Damage Control orthopaedic techniques have been proposed in the seriously injured with primary external fixation of long bone fractures, reducing the ‘second hit’ of surgery. We have developed a large animal (ovine) model for the study of major trauma. Aim To clarify the sequence of pulmonary and systemic physiological responses over a 24-hour period following injury, comparing the effects of primary external femoral fixation to intramedullary stabilisation to better quantify the ‘second hit’ of these surgical techniques. Methods Under terminal anaesthesia bilateral femoral diaphyseal fractures were produced using a mechanical pneumatic actuator (ram). Hypovolaemic shock was maintained for 4 hours before fluid resuscitation and surgical stabilisation. 24 sheep were randomised into 4 groups and monitored for 24 hours following injury:. Group 1 – Control Group (effects of general anaesthesia only). Group 2 – Control Group for Trauma (injury but no long bone stabilisation). Group 3 – Damage control group (Injury and external fixation). Group 4 – Early total care (Injury and reamed intra-medullary stabilisation). Outcome measures: Embolic load (Mayo score) using transoesophageal echocardiography; serum markers of coagulation (prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time and fibrinogen levels) and inflammation (interleukin 6). Bronchoalveolar lavage to assess total cell count and cell differential to quantify the proportion of neutrophils present. Results A sustained embolic shower was detected with each femoral fracture (mean Mayo score of 5 and 5.5 respectively). Intramedullary reaming and nailing produced further embolic events with a mean score of 2.5 and 1.5 respectively. Mean prothrombin time increased from a pre-fracture mean of 12 in each group to 18.8 (group 1) 20.7 (group 2); 24.8 (group 3); 31.1 (group 4). Alveolar lavage samples taken at 0, 4 and 24 hours following injury indicated a progressive neutrophilia developing in each group with a count pre-fracture of 4.3 increasing to 55.75 (group 1); 40 (group2); 49 (group3) and 31.7 (group 4) by 24 hours following injury. Discussion The effects of damage control techniques in this model appear to be a reduced stimulation of the extrinsic coagulation system. An additional embolic hit was detected secondary to intramedullary reaming and nail insertion. Localised lung inflammation seems to develop in all groups with no significant differences seen due to treatment

Aims

The best time for definitive orthopaedic care is often unclear in patients with multiple injuries. The objective of this study was make a prospective assessment of the safety of our early appropriate care (EAC) strategy and to evaluate the potential benefit of additional laboratory data to determine readiness for surgery.

The June 2014 Research Roundup³⁶⁰ looks at:Intraoperative irrigation a balance of toxicities; Ibandronate effective in bone marrow oedema; Risk stratification in damage control surgery; Osteoblast like cells potentially safe; Better wear and antibacterial?; Assessing outcomes in hip fracture.