Bone defects are frequently observed in anterior shoulder instability. Over the last decade, knowledge of the association of bone loss with increased failure rates of soft-tissue repair has shifted the surgical management of chronic shoulder instability. On the glenoid side, there is no controversy about the critical glenoid bone loss being 20%. However, poor outcomes have been described even with a subcritical glenoid bone defect as low as 13.5%. On the humeral side, the Hill-Sachs lesion should be evaluated concomitantly with the glenoid defect as the two sides of the same bipolar lesion which interact in the instability process, as described by the glenoid track concept. We advocate adding remplissage to every Bankart repair in patients with a Hill-Sachs lesion, regardless of the glenoid bone loss. When critical or subcritical glenoid bone loss occurs in active patients (> 15%) or bipolar off-track lesions, we should consider anterior glenoid bone reconstructions. The techniques have evolved significantly over the last two decades, moving from open procedures to arthroscopic, and from screw fixation to metal-free fixation. The new arthroscopic techniques of glenoid bone reconstruction procedures allow precise positioning of the graft, identification, and treatment of concomitant injuries with low morbidity and faster recovery. Given the problems associated with bone resorption and metal hardware protrusion, the new metal-free techniques for Latarjet or free bone block procedures seem a good solution to avoid these complications, although no long-term data are yet available. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(10):1100–1110

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This study aimed to quantify the shoulder kinematics during an apprehension-relocation test in patients with anterior shoulder instability (ASI) and glenoid bone loss using the radiostereometric analysis (RSA) method. Kinematics were compared with the patient’s contralateral healthy shoulder.

Aims

The aims of this study were to validate the minimal clinically important difference (MCID) and patient-acceptable symptom state (PASS) thresholds for Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI), Rowe score, American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES), and visual analogue scale (VAS) scores following arthroscopic Bankart repair, and to identify preoperative threshold values of these scores that could predict the achievement of MCID and PASS.

Rotator cuff pathology is the main cause of shoulder pain and dysfunction in older adults. When a rotator cuff tear involves the subscapularis tendon, the symptoms are usually more severe and the prognosis after surgery must be guarded. Isolated subscapularis tears represent 18% of all rotator cuff tears and arthroscopic repair is a good alternative primary treatment. However, when the tendon is deemed irreparable, tendon transfers are the only option for younger or high-functioning patients. The aim of this review is to describe the indications, biomechanical principles, and outcomes which have been reported for tendon transfers, which are available for the treatment of irreparable subscapularis tears.

The best tendon to be transferred remains controversial. Pectoralis major transfer was described more than 30 years ago to treat patients with failed surgery for instability of the shoulder. It has subsequently been used extensively to manage irreparable subscapularis tendon tears in many clinical settings. Although pectoralis major reproduces the position and orientation of the subscapularis in the coronal plane, its position in the axial plane – anterior to the rib cage – is clearly different and does not allow it to function as an ideal transfer. Consistent relief of pain and moderate recovery of strength and function have been reported following the use of this transfer. In an attempt to improve on these results, latissimus dorsi tendon transfer was proposed as an alternative and the technique has evolved from an open to an arthroscopic procedure. Satisfactory relief of pain and improvements in functional shoulder scores have recently been reported following its use. Both pectoralis minor and upper trapezius transfers have also been used in these patients, but the outcomes that have been reported do not support their widespread use.

Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2024;106-B(9):970–977.

Aims. To systematically review the predominant complication rates and changes to patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) following osteochondral allograft (OCA) transplantation for shoulder instability. Methods. This systematic review, following PRISMA guidelines and registered in PROSPERO, involved a comprehensive literature search using PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Scopus. Key search terms included “allograft”, “shoulder”, “humerus”, and “glenoid”. The review encompassed 37 studies with 456 patients, focusing on primary outcomes like failure rates and secondary outcomes such as PROMs and functional test results. Results. A meta-analysis of primary outcomes across 17 studies revealed a dislocation rate of 5.1% and an increase in reoperation rates from 9.3% to 13.7% post-publication bias adjustment. There was also a noted rise in conversion to total shoulder arthroplasty and incidence of osteoarthritis/osteonecrosis over longer follow-up periods. Patient-reported outcomes and functional tests generally showed improvement, albeit with notable variability across studies. A concerning observation was the consistent presence of allograft resorption, with rates ranging from 33% to 80%. Comparative studies highlighted similar efficacy between distal tibial allografts and Latarjet procedures in most respects, with some differences in specific tests. Conclusion. OCA transplantation presents a promising treatment option for shoulder instability, effectively addressing both glenoid and humeral head defects with favourable patient-reported outcomes. These findings advocate for the inclusion of OCA transplantation in treatment protocols for shoulder instability, while also emphasizing the need for further high-quality, long-term research to better understand the procedure’s efficacy profile. Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2024;5(7):570–580

The Latarjet procedure is a well described method to stabilize anterior shoulder instability. There are concerns of high complication rates, one of these being a painful shoulder without instability due to screw irritation. The arthroscopic changes in the shoulder at time of screw removal compared to those pre-Latarjet have not been described in the literature. We conducted a retrospective review of arthroscopic videos between 2015 and 2022 of 17 patients at the time of their Latarjet screw removal and where available (n=13) compared them to arthroscopic findings at time of index Latarjet. Instability was an exclusion criterion. X-rays prior to screw removal were assessed independently by two observers blinded to patient details for lysis of the graft. Arthroscopic assessment of the anatomy and pathological changes were made by two shoulder surgeons via mutual consensus. An intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was analyzed as a measure for the inter-observer reliability for the radiographs. Our cohort had an average age of 21.5±7.7 years and an average period of 16.2±13.1 months between pre- and post-arthroscopy. At screw removal all patients had an inflamed subscapularis muscle with 88% associated musculotendinous tears and 59% had a pathological posterior labrum. Worsening in the condition of subscapularis muscle (93%), humeral (31%) and glenoid (31%) cartilage was found when compared to pre-Latarjet arthroscopes. Three failures of capsular repair were seen, two of these when only one anchor was used. X-ray review demonstrated 79% of patients had graft lysis. Excellent inter-rater reliability was observed with an ICC value of 0.82. Our results show a high rate of pathological change in the subscapularis muscle, glenoid labrum and articular cartilage in the stable but painful Latarjet. 79% of patients had graft lysis with prominent screws on X-ray

Aims

Glenoid bone loss is a significant problem in the management of shoulder instability. The threshold at which the bone loss is considered “critical” requiring bony reconstruction has steadily dropped and is now approximately 15%. This necessitates accurate measurement in order that the correct operation is performed. CT scanning is the most commonly used modality and there are a number of techniques described to measure the bone loss however few have been validated. The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of the most commonly used techniques for measuring glenoid bone loss on CT.

The April 2023 Shoulder & Elbow Roundup. 360. looks at: Arthroscopic Bankart repair in athletes: in it for the long run?; Functional outcomes and the Wrightington classification of elbow fracture-dislocations; Hemiarthroplasty or ORIF intra-articular distal humerus fractures in older patients; Return to sport after total shoulder arthroplasty and hemiarthroplasty; Readmissions after shoulder arthroplasty; Arthroscopic Bankart repair in the longer term; Bankart repair with(out) remplissage or the Latarjet procedure? A systematic review and meta-analysis; Regaining motion among patients with shoulder pathology: are all exercises equal?

Aims. The open Latarjet procedure is a widely used treatment for recurrent anterior instability of the shoulder. Although satisfactory outcomes are reported, factors which influence a patient’s experience are poorly quantified. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of a range of demographic factors and measures of the severity of instability on patient-reported outcome measures in patients who underwent an open Latarjet procedure at a minimum follow-up of two years. Methods. A total of 350 patients with anterior instability of the shoulder who underwent an open Latarjet procedure between 2005 and 2018 were reviewed prospectively, with the collection of demographic and psychosocial data, preoperative CT, and complications during follow-up of two years. The primary outcome measure was the Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI), assessed preoperatively, at two years postoperatively, and at mid-term follow-up at a mean of 50.6 months (SD 24.8) postoperatively. The secondary outcome measure was the abbreviated version of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDASH) score. The influence of the demographic details of the patients, measurements of the severity of instability, and the complications of surgery were assessed in a multivariate analysis. Results. The mean age of the patients was 25.5 years (22 to 32) and 27 (7.7%) were female. The median time to surgery after injury was 19 months (interquartile range (IQR) 13 to 39). Seven patients developed clinically significant complications requiring further intervention within two years of surgery. The median percentage WOSI deficiency was 8.0% (IQR 4 to 20) and median QuickDASH was 3.0 (IQR 0 to 9) at mid-term assessment. A minority of patients reported a poorer experience, and 22 (6.3%) had a > 50% deficiency in WOSI score. Multivariate analysis revealed that consumption of ≥ 20 units of alcohol/week, a pre-existing affective disorder or epilepsy, medicolegal litigation, increasing time to surgery, and residing in a more socioeconomically deprived area were independently predictive of a poorer WOSI score. Conclusion. Although most patients treated by an open Latarjet procedure have excellent outcomes at mid-term follow-up, a minority have poorer outcomes, which are mainly predictable from pre-existing demographic factors, rather than measures of the severity of instability. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2023;105-B(4):389–399

The risk of falls in patients undergoing orthopedic procedures is particularly significant in terms of health and socioeconomic effects. The literature analyzed closely this risk following procedures performed on the lower limb, but the implications following procedures on the upper limb remain to be investigated. Interestingly, it is not clear whether the increased risk of falling in patients undergoing shoulder surgery is due to preexisting risk factors at surgery or postoperative risk factors, such as anesthesiologic effects, opioid medications used for pain control, or brace use. Only one prospective study examined gait and fall risk in patients using a shoulder abduction brace (SAB) after shoulder surgery, revealing that the brace adversely affected gait kinematics with an increase in the risk of falls. The main purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of SAB on gait parameters in patients undergoing shoulder surgery. Patients undergoing elective shoulder surgery (arthroscopic rotator cuff repair, reverse total shoulder arthroplasty, and Latarjet procedure), who used a 15° SAB in the postoperative period, were included. Conversely, patients age > 65 years old, with impaired lower extremity function (e.g., fracture sequelae, dysmorphism, severe osteo-articular pathology), central and peripheral nervous system pathologies, and cardiac/respiratory/vascular insufficiency were excluded. Participants underwent kinematic analysis at four different assessment times: preoperative (T0), 24 hours after surgery (T1), 1 week after surgery (T2), and 1 week after SAB removal (T3). The tests used for kinematic assessment were the Timed Up and Go (TUG) and the 10-meter test (10MWT), both of which examine functional mobility. Agility and balance were assessed by a TUG test (transitions from sitting to standing and vice versa, walking phase, turn-around), while gait (test time, cadence, speed, and pelvic symmetry) was evaluated by the 10MWT. Gait and functional mobility parameters during 10MWT and TUG tests were assessed using the BTS G-Walk sensor (G-Sensor 2). One-way ANOVA for repeated measures was conducted to detect the effects of SAB on gait parameters and functional mobility over time. Statistical analysis was performed with IBM®SPSS statistics software version 23.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), with the significant level set at p<0.05. 83% of the participants had surgery on the right upper limb. A main effect of time for the time of execution (duration) (p=0.01, η2=0.148), speed (p<0.01, η2=0.136), cadence (p<0.01, η2=0.129) and propulsion-right (R) (p<0.05, η2=0.105) and left (L) (p<0.01, η2=0.155) in the 10MWT was found. In the 10MWT, the running time at T1 (9.6±1.6s) was found to be significantly longer than at T2 (9.1±1.3s, p<0.05) and at T3 (9.0±1.3s, p=0.02). Cadence at T1 (109.7±10.9steps/min) was significantly lower than at T2 (114.3 ±9.3steps/min, p<0.01) and T3 (114.3±9.3steps/min, p=0.02). Velocity at T1 (1.1±0.31m/s) was significantly lower than at T2 (1.2± 0.21m/s, p<0.05). No difference was found in the pelvis symmetry index. No significant differences were found during the TUG test except for the final rotation phase with T2 value significantly greater than T3 (1.6±0.4s vs 1.4±0.3s, p<0.05). No statistically significant differences were found between T0 and T2 and between T0 and T3 in any of the parameters analyzed. Propulsion-R was significantly higher at T3 than T1 (p<0.01), whereas propulsion-L was significantly lower at T1 than T0 (p<0.05) and significantly higher at T2 and T3 than T1 (p<0.01). Specifically, the final turning phase was significantly higher at T2 than T3 (p<0.01); no significant differences were found for the duration, sit to stand, mid-turning and stand to sit phases. The results demonstrated that the use of the abduction brace affects functional mobility 24 hours after shoulder surgery but no effects were reported at longer term observations

Aims

Recurrent dislocation is both a cause and consequence of glenoid bone loss, and the extent of the bony defect is an indicator guiding operative intervention. Literature suggests that loss greater than 25% requires glenoid reconstruction. Measuring bone loss is controversial; studies use different methods to determine this, with no clear evidence of reproducibility. A systematic review was performed to identify existing CT-based methods of quantifying glenoid bone loss and establish their reliability and reproducibility

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The amount of glenoid bone loss is an important factor in deciding between soft-tissue and bony reconstruction when managing anterior shoulder instability. Accurate and reproducible measurement of glenoid bone loss is therefore vital in evaluation of shoulder instability and recommending specific treatment. The aim of this systematic review is to identify the range methods and measurement techniques employed in clinical studies treating glenoid bone loss.

Introduction and Objective. Tranexamic acid (TXA) is used across surgical specialties to reduce perioperative bleeding. It has been shown to be effective in trauma, spinal surgery, and lower limb arthroplasty. The aim of this study is to investigate the clinical effectiveness of TXA in all types of shoulder surgery on bleeding and non-bleeding related outcomes. Materials and Methods. This study was registered prospectively on the PROSPERO database (ref: CRD42020185482). A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) investigating intra-operative use of TXA versus placebo in any type of surgery to the shoulder girdle. Electronic databases searched included MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsychINFO, and the Cochrane Library. Risk of bias within studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias v2.0 tool and Jadad score. Certainty of findings were reported using the GRADE approach. The primary outcome was total blood loss. Secondary outcomes included patient reported outcome measures, adverse events, and rate of blood transfusion. Results. Eight RCTs were included in the systematic review and data from 7 of these studies pooled in the meta-analysis. A total of 708 patients were randomized across the studies (406 received TXA, 302 received placebo). Studies included patients undergoing anatomic or reverse total shoulder arthroplasty, open Latarjet surgery, and arthroscopic rotator cuff repair. Pooled analysis demonstrated significant reduction in perioperative bleeding with TXA compared to controls; estimated total blood loss (mean difference [MD], −209.66; 95% CI −389.11 to −30.21; p=0.02), and post-operative blood loss (via drain output) (MD, −84.8ml; 95% CI, −140.04 to −29.56; p=0.003). A mean difference in Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) of 2.93 was noted in favour of TXA (95% CI 0.2 to 5.66; p=0.04). Conclusions. Whilst noting some risk of bias within the studies, TXA was effective in reducing blood loss and pain in shoulder surgery. There may be a benefit of TXA use in both open and arthroscopic shoulder procedures. Larger, low risk of bias, RCTs for specific surgical shoulder procedures are required

The function of the upper extremity is highly dependent on correlated motion of the shoulder. The shoulder can be affected by several diseases. The most common are: rotator cuff tear (RCT), shoulder instability, shoulder osteoarthritis and fractures. Rotator cuff disease is a common disorder. It has a high prevalence rate, causing high direct and indirect costs. The appropriate treatment for RCT is debated. The American Academy Orthopaedic Surgeons guidelines state that surgical repair is an option for patients with chronic, symptomatic full-thickness RCT, but the quality of evidence is unconvincing. Thus, the AAOS recommendations are inconclusive. We are performing a randomized controlled trial to compare surgical and conservative treatment of RCT, in term of functional outcomes, rotator cuff integrity, muscle atrophy and fatty degeneration. Shoulder instability occurs when the head of the upper arm bone is forced out of the shoulder socket. Shoulder instabilities have been classified according to the etiology, the direction of instability, or on combinations thereof. The Thomas and Matsen classification, which is currently the most commonly utilized classification, divides shoulder instability events into the traumatic, unidirectional, Bankart lesion, and surgery (TUBS) and the atraumatic, multidirectional, bilateral, rehabilitation, and capsular shift (AMBRI) categories. The acquired instability overstress surgery (AIOS) category was then added. Surgical procedures for shoulder instability includes arthroscopic capsuloplasty, remplissage, bone block procedure or Latarjet procedure. Reverse total shoulder arthroplasty (RTSA) represents a good solution for the management of patients with osteoarthritis or fracture of the proximal humerus, with associated severe osteoporosis and RC dysfunction

The aim of this study was to determine if the extent of the glenoid and humeral bone loss affects the rate of recurrent instability and the functional outcome following the Latarjet procedure. 161 patients underwent open Latarjet procedure during the period 2006–2015 (Mean age 30.0 years, 150t (93.2%) Male, 118 (73.3%) primary procedure). Functional outcome was measured using the Western Ontario Shoulder Instability Index (WOSI) and Quick Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (QuickDash) score at a mean of 4.7 years post-operatively. All patients underwent computed tomographic (CT) imaging pre-operatively. Using three-dimensional reconstruction, the glenoid bone loss, Hill-Sachs lesion and ‘Glenoid Track’ status was recorded. Radiographically-confirmed redislocation was rare (1.2%), but 18.5% (n=23/124) reported ongoing subjective shoulder instability. Fifty-two shoulders (32.3%) were classified as “Off-Track”. The median Quick DASH and WOSI scores were 2.27 (IQR 9.09; range 0–70.45) and 272.0 (IQR 546.5; range 0–2003), respectively. There were no significant differences observed between overall Quick DASH scores or WOSI scores for either On-Track or Off-Track groups (p=0.7 and 0.73, respectively). Subjective instability was not influenced by the degree of glenoid bone loss (p=0.82), the overall size of the Hill-Sachs lesion (p=0.80), or the presence of an ‘Off-Track’ lesion (p=0.84). Functional outcome and recurrent instability following the Latarjet procedure do not appear to be influenced by the extent of glenohumeral bone loss prior to surgery

Aims. The aim of this study was to identify risk factors for recurrent instability of the shoulder and assess the ability to return to sport in patients with engaging Hill-Sachs lesions treated with arthroscopic Bankart repair and Hill-Sachs remplissage (ABR-HSR). Methods. This retrospective study included 133 consecutive patients with a mean age of 30 years (14 to 69) who underwent ABR-HSR; 103 (77%) practiced sports before the instability of the shoulder. All had large/deep, engaging Hill-Sachs lesions (Calandra III). Patients were divided into two groups: A (n = 102) with minimal or no (< 10%) glenoid bone loss, and B (n = 31) with subcritical (10% to 20%) glenoid loss. A total of 19 patients (14%) had undergone a previous stabilization, which failed. The primary endpoint was recurrent instability, with a secondary outcome of the ability to return to sport. Results. At a mean follow-up of four years (1.0 to 8.25), ten patients (7.5%) had recurrent instability. Patients in group B had a significantly higher recurrence rate than those in group A (p = 0.001). Using a multivariate logistic regression, the presence of glenoid erosion of > 10% (odds ratio (OR) = 35.13 (95% confidence interval (CI) 8 to 149); p = 0.001) and age < 23 years (OR = 0.89 (0.79 to 0.99); p = 0.038) were associated with a higher risk of recurrent instability. A total of 80 patients (78%) could return to sport, but only 11 athletes (65%) who practiced high-risk (collision or contact-overhead) sports. All seven shoulders which were revised using a Latarjet procedure were stable at a mean final follow-up of 36 months (11 to 57) and returned to sports at the same level. Conclusion. Patients with subcritical glenoid bone loss (> 10%) and younger age (≤ 23 years) are at risk of failure and reoperation after ABR-HSR. Furthermore, following this procedure, one-third of athletes practicing high-risk sports are unable to return at their pre-instability level, despite having a stable shoulder. Cite this article: Bone Joint J 2021;103-B(4):718–724

Recurrent anterior shoulder instability (RASI) is related to progressive bone loss on the glenoid and on the humeral head. Bone deficit magnitude is a well-recognized predictor of recurrence of instability after an arthroscopic Bankart surgery, but the best way to measure it is unknown. In this study, we want to determine which measurement method is the best predictor of recurrence of instability and function. For 10 years now, all patients undergoing surgery for RASI in 4 centers are included in a prospective study: the LUXE cohort. Patients with a pre-operative CT-scan and a minimum of 1-year follow-up were included. ISIS score was used to stratify patients. WOSI and Quick-Dash questionnaires were used to characterise function. Bone defects were assessed using the Clock method, the Glenoid Ratio, the Humeral Ratio, the Glenoid Track method and the angle of engagement in the axial plane. A total of 262 patients are now included in the LUXE study. One hundred and three patients met the inclusion criteria for analysis with a majority of male (79%) and a mean age is 28 years old. The median number of dislocations prior to surgery was 6. Seventy patients had an arthroscopic Bankart repair and 33 patients underwent an open Latarjet procedure. The ISIS score for these groups were of 2.7 and 4.8 respectively (p<0.001). The mean bone defect on the glenoid was of 1h51 with the Clock method (range: 0h-4h48; SD=1h46) and of 9% for the glenoid ratio (0–37%, 10%). On the humeral side, the bone defect was of 1h59 (0h-4h08; 0h49) for the Humeral clock method, 15% (0–36%; 6%) with the ratio method and 71 degrees of external rotation (SD=30 degrees) with the angle of engagement measurement. On the combined evaluations, 53 patients presented an off-track lesion, with mean combined hours of 3h53 (SD= 2h13). The greatest correlation obtained was between the glenoid ratio and the glenoid clock method (r=0.919, p<0.001). Eighteen patients had a recurrence of shoulder dislocation after the initial surgery, leading to a recurrence rate of 23% in arthroscopic surgery versus six percent after a Latarjet (OR= 4.6, p=0.034). No bone defect was correlated to Latarjet failure. For the arthroscopic group, the risk of recurrence was related to a smaller angle of engagement of the Hill-Sachs (p=0.05), a smaller Humeral clock measurement (p=0.034) and a longer follow-up (p=0.006). No glenoid or combined measurements were correlated with arthroscopic procedure failure. Recurrence of dislocation was associated to worst function according to the WOSI (1036 vs 573, p=0.002) and DASH (32 vs 15, p=0.03). Even with lower ISIS score, arthroscopic procedures are still leading to high risk of recurrence in this “all comer” consecutive cohort study AND it is related to humeral side parameters. Recurrence is also affecting daily function and creating higher anxiety related to the shoulder