Background

FORECAST is a prospective longitudinal cohort study exploring mechanism-based prognostic factors for pain persistence in sciatica. Here, we share an update on this largest deeply-phenotyped primary care sciatica cohort.

Management of highly displaced acromioclavicular joint (ACJ) injuries remain contentious. It is unclear if delayed versus acute reconstruction has an increased risk of fixation failure and complications. The primary aim of this was to compare complications of early versus delayed reconstruction. The secondary aim was to determine modes of failure of ACJ reconstruction requiring revision surgery.

A retrospective study was performed of all patients who underwent operative reconstruction of ACJ injuries over a 10-year period (Rockwood III-V). Reconstruction was classed as early (<12 weeks from injury) or delayed (≥12 weeks). Patient demographics, fixation method and post-operative complications were noted, with one-year follow-up a minimum requirement for inclusion. Fixation failure was defined as loss of reduction requiring revision surgery.

104 patients were analysed (n=60 early and n=44 delayed). Mean age was 42.0 (SD 11.2, 17–70 years), 84.6% male and 16/104 were smokers. No difference was observed between fixation failure (p=0.39) or deep infection (p=0.13) with regards to acute versus delayed reconstruction. No patient demographic or timing of surgery was predictive of fixation failure on regression modelling. Overall, eleven patients underwent revision surgery for loss of reduction and implant failure (n=5 suture fatigue, n=2 endo-button escape, n=2 coracoid stress fracture and n=2 deep infection).

This study suggests that delayed ACJ reconstruction does not have a higher incidence of fixation failure or major complications compared to acute reconstruction. For those patients with ongoing pain and instability following a trial of non-operative treatment, delayed reconstruction would appear to be a safe treatment approach.

The aim of this study was to define the long-term outcome following adolescent clavicle fracture.

We retrospectively reviewed all adolescent fractures presenting to our region (13–17years) over a 10-year period. Patient reported outcomes were undertaken at a minimum of 4 years post-injury (QuickDASH and EQ-5D) in completely displaced midshaft fractures (Edinburgh 2B, >2cm displacement, n=50) and angulated midshaft fractures (Edinburgh 2A2, >30 degrees angulation, n=32).

677 clavicle fractures were analysed. The median age was 14.8 (IQR 14.0–15.7) and 89% were male. The majority were midshaft (n=606, 89.5%) with either angulation (39.8%) or simple fully displaced (39.1%). Only 3% of midshaft fractures underwent acute fixation (n=18/606), all of which were fully displaced. The incidence of refracture following non-operative management of midshaft fractures was 3.2% (n=19/588), all united with non-operative management. Fracture type, severity of angulation or displacement was not associated with risk of refracture. There was one case of non-union encountered following non-operative management of all displaced midshaft fractures (0.4%, n=1/245). At a mean of 7.6 years following injury, non-operative management of both displaced and angulated fractures had a median QuickDASH was 0.0 (IQR 0.0–2.3), EQ-5D was 1.0 (IQR 1.0–1.0). 97% of angulated fractures and 94% of displaced fractures were satisfied with their final shoulder function.

We conclude that Non-operative management of adolescent midshaft clavicle fractures result in excellent functional outcomes with a low rate of complications at long-term follow up. The relative indications for surgical intervention for clavicle fractures in adults do not appear to be applicable to adolescents.

This prospective, randomized, controlled trial compares patient outcome after non-operative care versus open reduction and tunneled suspension device fixation (ORTSD) for grade III or IV acromioclavicular joint disruptions.

Sixty patients aged between sixteen and thirty-five years with an acute grade III or IV AC joint disruption were randomized to receive ORTSD fixation or non-operative treatment. Functional assessment was conducted at six weeks, three months, six months, and one year using the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hands (DASH), Oxford Shoulder Scores (OSS) and Short Form (SF-12). Reduction was evaluated using radiographs. Complications were recorded, and an economic evaluation performed.

There was no significant difference in DASH or OSS at one year between non-operative and ORTSD groups (DASH score, 4.67 versus 5.63; OSS, 45.72 versus 45.63). Patients undergoing surgery had inferior DASH scores at 6 weeks (p<0.01). Five patients who failed non-operative management subsequently received surgery. Overall cost of treatment was significantly greater after ORTSD fixation (£796.22 vs £3359.73 (p<0.01)).

ORTSD fixation confers no functional benefit over non-operative treatment at one year. While patients managed non-operatively generally recover faster, a significant group remain dissatisfied following non-operative treatment requiring delayed surgical reconstruction.

To evaluate if clinical recovery following midshaft clavicle fracture is associated with nonunion and determine if this has superior predictive value compared to estimation at time of injury.

A prospective study of all patients (≥16 years) who sustained a displaced midshaft clavicle fracture was performed. We assessed patient demographics, injury factors, functional scores and radiographic predictors with a standardized protocol at six-weeks. Conditional-stepwise regression was used to assess which factors independently predicted nonunion at six-months post-injury determined by CT. The nonunion predictor six-week model (NUP6) was compared against a previously validated model based on factors available at time of injury (NUP0-smoking, comminution and fracture displacement).

200 patients completed follow-up at six months. The nonunion rate was 14% (27/200). Of the functional scores, the QuickDASH had the highest accuracy on receiver-operator-characteristic (ROC) curve analysis with a 39.8 threshold, above which was associated with nonunion (Area Under Curve (AUC) 76.8%, p<0.001).

On regression modelling QuickDASH ≥40 (p=0.001), no callus on radiograph (p=0.004) and fracture movement on examination (p=0.001) were significant predictors of nonunion. If none were present the predicted nonunion risk was 3%, found in 40% of the cohort (n=80/200). Conversely if two or more were present, found in 23.5% of the cohort, the predicted nonunion risk was 60%.

The NUP6 model appeared to have superior accuracy when compared to the NUP0 model on ROC curve analysis (AUC 87.3% vs 64.8% respectively).

Delayed assessment at six-weeks following displaced clavicle fracture enables a more accurate prediction of fracture healing.

Fractures of the lateral clavicle with complete displacement have a high non-union rate and are associated with poor functional outcomes following non-operative treatment. Various operative techniques are available but preliminary studies of open reduction and tunnelled suspensory device (ORTSD) fixation report good early functional outcomes with a low rate of complications. This study assesses the functional outcomes in a large series of patients treated using ORTSD.

After surgical reconstruction in 67 patients, outcomes were assessed using the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) questionnaire and Oxford score at six weeks, and three, six and twelve months post-operatively. 55 of 64 surviving patients were contacted at a mean of 69 (27–120) months to complete DASH and Oxford scores, evaluate overall satisfaction, and document any complications.

At one year post-operatively, the mean Oxford score was 46.4 and mean DASH score was 2.4 points (59/67 patients assessed). At a mean of 69 months after surgery, the mean Oxford score was 46.5 and mean DASH score was 2.2 (55 surviving and contactable patients). There were no significant differences between the one-year functional scores and those at the latest follow-up. Two patients developed symptomatic non-union requiring re-operation, and two developed an asymptomatic fibrous union not requiring surgery. The five-year survival when considering only obligate revision for implant-related complications was 97.0%.

ORTSD fixation for isolated displaced lateral-end clavicle fractures in medically-fit patients is associated with good functional outcomes, and a low rate of medium-term complications. Routine removal of the implant was not necessary.

The primary aim of this study was to undertake a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) of acute fixation versus conservative management of displaced midshaft clavicle fractures. The secondary aim was to conduct a sensitivity analysis of patient characteristics that may influence a threshold of £20,000 per quality-adjusted life year gained (QALY).

A CEA was conducted from a randomised control trial comparing conservative management (n=92) to acute plate fixation (n=86) of displaced midshaft clavicle fractures. The incremental cost effectiveness ratio (ICER) was used to express the cost per QALY. The short form 6-dimensional (SF-6D) score was the preference based index to calculate the cost per QALY.

The 12-month SF-6D advantage of acute fixation over conservative management was 0.0085 (p=0.464) with a mean cost difference of £4,096.22 and resultant ICER of £481,908.24/QALY. For a threshold of £20,000/QALY the benefit of acute fixation would need to be present for 24.1 years. Linear regression analysis identified nonunion as the only independent factor to influence the SF-6D at 12-months (p<0.001). Conservatively managed fractures that resulted in a nonunion (n=16) had a significantly worse SF-6D compared to acute fixation (0.0723, p=0.001) with comparable healthcare cost at 12-months (£170.12 difference). Modelling the ICER of acute fixation against those complicated by a nonunion proved to be cost effective at £2,352.97/QALY at 12-months.

Routine plate fixation of displaced midshaft clavicle fractures is not cost-effective. Patients with nonunion after conservative management have increased morbidity with comparable expense to those undergoing acute fixation which suggests targeting these patients is a more cost-effective strategy.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of clavicular shortening, measured by three-dimensional computerized tomography (3DCT), on functional outcomes and satisfaction in patients with healed, displaced, midshaft clavicle fractures up to one year following injury.

The data used in this study were collected as part of a multicenter, prospective randomized control trial comparing open reduction and plate fixation with nonoperative treatment for displaced midshaft clavicle factures. Patients who were randomized to nonoperative treatment and who had healed by one year were included. Clavicle shortening relative to the uninjured contralateral clavicle was measured on 3DCT. Outcome analysis was conducted at six weeks, three months, six months and one year following injury and included the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH), Constant and Short Form-12 (SF-12) scores, and patient satisfaction.

48 patients were included. The mean shortening of injured clavicles, relative to the contralateral side, was 11mm (+/− 7.6mm) with a mean proportional shortening of 8percnt;. Proportional shortening did not significantly correlate with the DASH (p>0.42), Constant (p>0.32) or SF-12 (p>0.08) scores at any time point. There was no significant difference in the mean DASH or Constant scores at any followup time point both when the cut off for shortening was defined as one centimeter (p>0.11) or two centimeters (p>0.35). There was no significant difference in clavicle shortening between satisfied and unsatisfied patients (p>0.49).

This study demonstrated no association between shortening and functional outcome or satisfaction in patients with healed, displaced, midshaft clavicle fractures up to one year following injury.

The natural history of primary anterior glenohumeral dislocation in adolescent patients remains unclear and no consensus exists for management of these patients. The study objectives were to report the natural history following primary anterior glenohumeral joint dislocation in adolescent patients and to identify risk factors for repeat dislocation.

We reviewed prospectively-collected clinical and radiological data of 133 adolescent patients (mean age 16.3 years (range 13–18); 115 male patients (86.5%)) diagnosed with primary anterior glenohumeral joint dislocation and managed nonoperatively from 1996 to 2008 at our institution (mean follow-up 95.2 months (range 1–215)).

During follow-up, 102 (absolute incidence of 76.7%) patients experienced repeat dislocation. Median time interval between primary and repeat dislocation was 10 months (CI: 7.4 – 12.6). On survival analysis, 59% (CI: 51.2 – 66.8%) of patients remained stable one year following initial injury, 38% (CI: 30.2 – 45.8%) after two years, 21% (CI: 13.2- 28.8%) after five years, and 7% (CI: 1.1–12.9%) after 10 years. Neither age nor gender significantly predicted repeat dislocation during follow-up.

In conclusion, adolescent patients with primary anterior glenohumeral joint dislocations have a high rate of repeat dislocation, which usually occurs within two years of initial injury, and these patients should be considered early for operative stabilisation.

First-time anterior dislocation of the shoulder is associated with the development of recurrent instability. It is recognised that patients with recurrent instability often have osseous defects. Using 3D computerised tomography (3DCT) it is possible to quantify these defects. Whether these defects are present after the primary dislocation or occur progressively from multiple dislocations is unclear. We correlated the presence of Hill-Sachs lesions and anterior glenoid bone loss with evidence of recurrent dislocation and clinical outcomes.

78 patients were followed up for two years. All underwent a 3DCT within a week of injury. Standardised images of the humeral head and glenoid were produced. Using standardised digital techniques bone loss was measured.

39% of the patients developed further instability. Average Hill-Sachs circumferential length = 15.23%. Average Hill-Sachs surface area = 5.53%. The length and surface area of the Hill-Sachs lesions were significantly associated with further instability. (p=0.019 and p=0.003). Average en face glenoid surface area loss=1.30% with no association to instability (p=0.685). There was poor correlation between the size of the glenoid lesion and the size of the Hill-Sachs lesion.

Results showed that age and increasing size of the Hill-Sachs lesions result in a higher rate of instability. Interestingly glenoid bone loss was relatively low and did not predict recurrent instability. The size of the Hill-Sachs lesion does not have a linear relationship with glenoid bone loss. Further work defining the morphology of the Hill-Sachs lesion and its engagement with a glenoid defect is required.

Background

Non-union has traditionally been considered a rare complication following the non-operative management of clavicle fractures. A growing body of evidence has demonstrated higher rates of non-union in adults with displaced fractures. However, the variables that predict non-union in these patients remain unclear. We evaluated the prevalence and risk factors for non-union following displaced midshaft clavicle fractures in a large consecutive series of patients managed non-operatively in our Unit.

Background

The functional outcome and risk of recurrence following arthroscopic stabilisation for recurrent anterior shoulder instability is poorly defined in large prospective outcome studies. This is the first study to prospectively evaluate these outcomes in patients who have been treated using this technique.

Background

Proximal humeral fractures are common and a minority develop non-union, which can result in pain and disability. We aimed to identify the risk factors and quantify the prevalence of non-union.

Aims

The aim of this study was to compare biomechanical properties of pre-contoured plate fixation using different screw fixation modes in a mid-shaft clavicle fracture model.

Background

Acute anterior dislocation of the glenohumeral joint may be complicated by injury to neighboring structures. These injuries are best considered a spectrum of injury ranging from an isolated dislocation (unifocal injury), through injuries associated with either nerve or osteoligamentous injury (bifocal injury), to injuries where there is evidence of both nerve and osteoligamentous injury. The latter combination has previously been described as the “terrible triad,” although we prefer the term “trifocal,” recognizing that this is the more severe end of an injury spectrum and avoiding confusion with the terrible triad of the elbow. We evaluated the prevalence and risk factors for nerve and osteoligamentous injuries associated with an acute anterior glenohumeral dislocation in a large consecutive series of patients treated in our Unit.

Background

Hyperlaxity is associated with a high incidence of shoulder dislocations. Collagen V regulates the diameter of fibrils of the abundant collagen type I. Decorin and biglycan are members of the small leucine rich proteoglycans(SLRP's)family and play important roles in the regulation of collagen fibrillogenesis. The aim of this study was to identify if there was a link in hyperlaxity, capsule strength, collagen V and SLRP's expression.

Background

Hyperlaxity is associated with a high incidence of sporting injuries. Collagen V regulates the diameter of fibrils of the abundant collagen type I. Decorin and biglycan are members of the small leucine rich proteoglycans(SLRP's)family and play important roles in the regulation of collagen fibrillogenesis. The aim of this study was to identify if there was a link in hyperlaxity, tissue strength, collagen V and SLRP's expression.

Non-union has traditionally been considered a rare complication following the non-operative management of clavicle fractures. Recent studies demonstrate higher rates of non-union in adults with displaced fractures, yet the variables predicting non-union remain unclear. We evaluated the prevalence and risk factors for non-union following displaced midshaft clavicle fractures in a large consecutive series of patients managed non-operatively.

1097 consecutive adults (mean age 26.1yrs) with displaced midshaft clavicle fractures treated non-operatively in our Unit were included. All patients were interviewed, examined and underwent radiological assessment within a week of injury. All patients were managed in a sling for two weeks followed by early mobilization. All patients were followed-up until clinical and radiological confirmation of union. Non-union was defined clinically as pain or mobility of the fracture segments on stressing, and radiologically as failure of cortical bridging by 6 months.

198 (18%) of patients had evidence of non-union at 6 months. Patient factors associated with non-union included increasing age, smoking and the presence of medical comorbidities (p<0.05). Injury-related factors associated with non-union included increasing fragment translation and displacement, and injury pattern (Edinburgh 2B2: comminuted segmental fracture)(p<0.01).

We present the largest series reporting prevalence and risk factors for non-union following conservatively treated, displaced midshaft clavicle fractures. These fractures can no longer be viewed as a single clinical entity, but as a spectrum of injuries each requiring individualized assessment and treatment. Increased understanding of the outcomes of these injuries will enable clinicians to better identify those patients that may be better served with primary operative reconstruction.

Damage Control techniques involve primary external fracture fixation to reduce the ‘second hit’ of surgery. This study used a large animal (ovine) trauma model to compare pathophysiological responses of primary external femoral fixation and intramedullary stabilisation.

Under terminal anaesthesia bilateral femoral fractures and hypovolaemia were produced using a pneumatic ram. 24 sheep were randomised into 4 groups and monitored for 24 hours. Group 1 – Control; Group 2 – Trauma only; Group 3 – Trauma and external fixation; Group 4 – Trauma and reamed intramedullary stabilisation. Outcome measures: pulmonary embolic load (transoesophageal echocardiography); plasma coagulation markers; bronchoalveolar lavage differential cell counts (neutrophils, lymphocytes and macrophages).

Total embolic load was significantly higher (p<0.001) in the intramedullary fixation group (median score 42 versus 20). All trauma groups had a significant increase (p < 0.05) in prothrombin time with a fall in antithrombin III and fibrinogen levels. No significant differences occurred between trauma groups with any coagulation or alveolar lavage marker.

Intramedullary femoral fracture fixation produced a relatively higher pulmonary embolic load. However, the initial fracture fixation method did not affect any of the changes seen in the measured coagulation or inflammatory markers during the first 24 hours of injury.

Our purpose was to study the functional outcome and electrophysiologically to assess the axially nerve function in patients who have undergone surgery using a deltoid-splitting approach to treat complex proximal humeral fractures.

This was a prospective observational study and was carried out in the Shoulder injury clinic at a university teaching hospital. Over a one-year period we treated fourteen locally-resident patients (median age 59 years) who presented with a three- or four-part proximal humeral fracture. All patients were treated using the extended deltoid-splitting approach, with open reduction, bone grafting and plate osteosynthesis. All patients were prospectively reviewed and underwent functional testing using the DASH, Constant and SF-36 scores as well as spring balance testing of deltoid power, and dynamic muscle function testing. At one year after surgery, all patients underwent EMG and nerve latency studies to assess axillary nerve function.

Thirteen of the fourteen patients united their fractures without complications, and had DASH and Constant score that were good, with comparatively minor residual deficits on assessment of muscle power. Of these thirteen patients, only one had evidence of slight neurogenic change in the anterior deltoid. This patient had no evidence of anterior deltoid paralysis and her functional scores, spring balance and dynamic muscle function test results were indistinguishable from the patients with normal electrophysiological findings. One of the fourteen patients developed osteonecrosis of the humeral head nine months after surgery and had poor functional scores, without evidence of nerve injury on electrophysiological testing.

Reconstruction through an extended deltoid-splitting approach provides a useful alternative in the treatment of complex proximal humeral fractures. The approach provides good access for reduction and implant placement and does not appear to be associated with clinically-significant adverse effects.