Objectives

Numerous complications following total knee replacement (TKR) relate to the patellofemoral (PF) joint, including pain and patellar maltracking, yet the options for in vivo imaging of the PF joint are limited, especially after TKR. We propose a novel sequential biplane radiological method that permits accurate tracking of the PF and tibiofemoral (TF) joints throughout the range of movement under weightbearing, and test it in knees pre- and post-arthroplasty.

INTRODUCTION. Over the past 40 years of knee arthroplasty, significant advances have been made in the design of knee implants, resulting in high patient satisfaction. Patellar tracking has been central to improving the patient experience, with modern designs including an optimized Q-angle, deepened trochlear groove, and thin anterior flange.[1–4] Though many of today's femoral components are specific for the left and right sides, Total Joint Orthopedics’ (TJO) Klassic® Knee System features a universal design to achieve operating room efficiencies while providing all the advancements of a modern knee. The Klassic Femur achieves this through a patented double Q-angle to provide excellent patellar tracking whether implanted in the left or the right knee (Figure 1). The present study examines a prospective cohort of 145 consecutive TKA's performed using a modern universal femur and considers patients’ pre- and post-operative Knee Society Clinical Rating System score (KSS). METHODS AND MATERIALS. 145 primary total knee arthroplasties (TKA) were performed during the study using a measured resection technique with a slope-matching tibial cut for all patients. The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) was sacrificed to accommodate an ultra-congruent polyethylene insert. The distal femur was cut at five degrees (5°) valgus; the tibia was resected neutral (0°) alignment for valgus legs and in two degrees (2°) of varus for varus alignment. The patella was resurfaced for all patients. Patients were followed annually for up to 46 months and were evaluated using the KSS score on a 200-point scale. RESULTS. The final study group comprised 127 primary TKAs. The average age was 68 years (51–90) with 45 males and 68 females. The average weight was 110kg (range: 75–151kg) for men and 88kg (range: 50–129kg) for women. One patient deceased during the follow-up period, four required manipulation under anesthesia, and two required revision for periprosthetic joint infection. There were no failures due to patellar maltracking. No special soft tissue releases were required in any patient. Average pre-operative knee score was 107, improving to 182 at average follow-up of 41 months (36–46 months). Results are summarized in Table 1. DISCUSSION. The improvement in patient clinical experience demonstrates that a universal femoral design can achieve excellent results if it incorporates modern technologies. A double Q-angle design with a deepened trochlear groove and a thin anterior flange appears to provide excellent patellar tracking for all patients in this cohort. This study is limited to the experience of a single institution. Further study would improve the extensibility of these findings. It does show, however, that a femur using a universal design with modern patellar tracking can improve patient satisfaction with their knee following TKA. For any figures or tables, please contact the authors directly

“The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.” This explains many cases of patellar maltracking, when the patellar track is visualised in three dimensions. The three-dimensional view means that rotation of the tibia and femur during flexion and extension, as well as rotational positioning of the tibial and femoral components are extremely important. As the extensor is loaded, the patella tends to “center” itself between the patellar tendon and the quadriceps muscle. The patella is most likely to track in the trochlear groove IF THE GROOVE is situated where the patella is driven by the extensor mechanism: along the shortest track from origin to insertion. Attempts to constrain the patella in the trochlear groove, if it lies outside that track, are usually unsuccessful. Physiologic mechanisms for tibial-femoral rotation that benefit patellar tracking (“screw home” and “asymmetric femoral roll-back”) are not generally reproduced. Practical Point. A patellofemoral radiograph that shows the tibial tubercle, illustrates how the tubercle, and with it the patellar tendon and patella itself, are all in line with the femoral trochlea. To accomplish this with a TKA, the femoral component is best rotated to the transepicondylar axis (TEA) and the tibial component to the tubercle. In this way, when the femoral component sits in its designated location on the tibial polyethylene, the trochlear groove will be ideally situated to “receive” the patella. Knee Mechanics. Six “degrees of freedom” refers to translation and rotation on three axes (x,y,z). This also describes how arthroplasty components can be positioned at surgery. The significant positions of tibial, femoral and patellar components are: 1. Internal-external rotation (around y-axis) and 2. Varus-valgus rotation (around z axis). 3. Medial-lateral translation (on x-axis). The other positional variables are less important for patella tracking. Biomechanical analyses of knee function are often broken down into: i. Extensor power analysis (y-z or sagittal plane) and ii. Tracking (x-y or frontal plane). These must be integrated to include the effects of rotation and to better understand patellar tracking. Effect of Valgus. Frontal plane alignment is important but less likely to reach pathological significance for patellar tracking than rotational malposition clinically. For example if a typical tibia is cut in 5 degrees of unintended mechanical valgus, this will displace the foot about 5 cm laterally but the tibial tubercle only 8 mm laterally. An excessively valgus tibial cut will not displace the tubercle and the patella as far as mal-rotation of the tibial component. Effect of Internal Rotation of Tibial Component. By contrast, internal rotation of the tibial component by 22 degrees, which is only 4 degrees in excess of what has been described as tolerable by Berger and Rubash, displaces the tubercle 14 mm, a distance that would place the center of most patella over the center of the lateral femoral condyle, risking dislocation. Dynamically, as the knee flexes, if the tibia is able to rotate externally this forces the tubercle into an even more lateral position, guaranteeing that the patella will align lateral to the tip of the lateral femoral condyle, and dislocate. The design of femoral components, in particular the varus-valgus angle of the trochlear groove, has an effect on patellar tracking. This effect will be accentuated by the surgical alignment technique of the femoral and tibial components. Component positions that mimic the orientation of the normal anatomy usually include more valgus alignment of the femoral component. This rotates the proximal “entrance” of the femoral trochlear groove more medially, making it more difficult for the patella to descend in the trochlear groove

Purpose: Mobile Bearing TKA has been reported to improve patellofemoral tracking due to the self-aligning impact of the mobile bearing. However, limited rotation of the mobile bearing may be insufficient to impact patellar tracking in an otherwise well-balanced TKA. Methods: Between December 1998 and October, 2003, 445 primary TKAs were performed via transpatellar arthrotomy. The same posterior stabilized femoral component was implanted in all knees. There were 312 fixed bearings and 133 rotating platforms implanted. In order to optimize patellar tracking, a neutral mechanical axis was established, femoral components were lateralized and externally rotated, patellar buttons were medialized, tibial components were externally rotated, and gaps and ligaments were meticulously balanced. Lateral release was performed based on intraoperative assessment of patellar tracking. Results: Lateral releases were performed in 47 of 312 (15%) fixed bearing knees, and in 14 of 133 (11%) mobile bearing knees (p=NS). Average preoperative alignment in the fixed bearing knees was –5 degrees (R-7 to 20), and in the mobile bearing knees was 0 degrees (R-10 to 20). Conclusions: Careful surgical technique with attention to the details of optimizing patellar tracking may be the most important factor determining the rate of lateral release. The self-aligning ability of mobile bearing TKA, which has been postulated to improve patellar tracking, may not reduce the need for lateral release in the cohort of patients in whom lateral tilt and subluxation of the patella persist even after other factors affecting patellar tracking have been surgically addressed

Purpose: Patellar bracing is a common, mechanical-based treatment strategy for patellofemoral osteoarthritis (OA). It is thought that the brace corrects patellar tracking, however, this correction has not been quantified in the OA population. Through advances in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), we can now assess patellar tracking in three-dimensions. Method: We assessed three-dimensional patellar tracking in ten subjects with symptomatic radiographic patellofemoral knee OA using a validated, quasi-static, MRI-based method. Four conditions were studied:. no knee brace, no load,. no knee brace, 15% bodyweight (BW) load,. knee brace, no load,. knee brace, 15% BW load. Patellar tracking (flexion, spin and tilt; proximal, lateral and anterior translation) was assessed. Comparisons were made at 1° increments over the coincidental range of knee flexion between the no-brace and brace conditions, at no load and 15% BW load, using a paired t-test with Bonferroni correction. Results: All subjects (7 female, 3 male, 60.9±1.3 yrs, 89.5±19.3 kg) had radiographic lateral patellofemoral OA and seven had concomitant tibiofemoral OA (KL grade≥2). Under no load, the brace extended (mean=2.7°, CI=[2.4°, 2.9°], P< 0.001) and medially tilted (mean=−1.4°, CI=[−1.6°, −1.2°], P< 0.001) the patellae and shifted them distally (mean=0.8mm, CI=[0.6mm, 0.9mm], P< 0.001), medially (mean=0.5mm, CI=[0.5mm, 0.6mm], P< 0.001) and posteriorly (mean=0.6mm, CI=[0.5mm, 0.6mm], P< 0.001). Under 15% BW load, the brace extended the patella (mean=2.4°, CI=[2.1°, 2.8°], P< 0.001) and shifted them distally (mean=1.3mm, CI=[1.1mm, 1.4mm], P< 0.001), medially (mean=0.8mm, CI=[0.7mm, 0.9mm], P< 0.001) and posteriorly (mean 0.6mm, CI=[0.5mm, 0.7mm], P< 0.001). Conclusion: The brace extended the patellae for both loading conditions, suggesting that patellar flexion/extension is restricted by the brace. The brace tilted the patellae medially under no load only, suggesting when the quadriceps are active (15% BW load) the brace has little effect for tilt. While the effect of bracing on patellar tracking may appear small, the differences are of similar magnitude to those observed between normals and patients with patellofemoral pain, suggesting that braces may produce clinically significant changes in patellar tracking

INTRODUCTION. Use of a novel ligament gap balancing instrumentation system in total knee arthroplasty (TKA) resulted in femoral component external rotation values which were higher on average, compared to measured bone resection systems. In one hundred twenty knees in 110 patients the external rotation averaged 6.9 degrees (± 2.8) and ranged from 0.6 to 12.8 degrees. The external rotation values in this study were 4° and 2° larger, respectively, than the typical 3° and 5° discrete values that are common to measured resection systems. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of these greater external rotation values for the femoral component on patellar tracking, flexion stability and function of two different TKA implant designs. METHODS. In the first arm of the study, 120 knees in 110 patients were consecutively enrolled by a single surgeon using the same implant design (single radius femur with a medial constraint tibial liner) across subjects. All patients underwent arthroplasty with tibial resection first and that set external rotation of the femoral component based upon use of a ligament gap balancing system. Following ligament tensioning / balancing, the femur was prepared. The accuracy of the ligament balancing system was assessed by reapplying equal tension to the ligaments using a tensioning bolt and torque wrench in flexion and extension after the bone resections had been made. The resulting flexion and extension gaps were then measured to determine rectangular shape and equality of the gaps. Postoperative Merchant views were obtained on all of the patients and patellar tracking was assessed and compared to 120 consecutive total knee arthroplasties previously performed by the same surgeon with the same implant using a measured resection system. In the second arm of the study, 100 unilateral knees in 100 patients were consecutively enrolled. The same instrumentation and technique by the same surgeon was used, but with a different implant design (single radius femur without a medial constraint tibial liner). RESULTS. Rectangular flexion and extension gaps were obtained within ± 0.5mm in all cases. Equality of the flexion and extension gaps was also obtained within ± 0.5mm in all cases. Merchant views of the total knee arthroplasties showed central patellar tracking with no tilt or subluxation in 90% of the ligament gap balanced knees and 74% of the measured resection knees. Arthrofibrosis resulting in a closed manipulation under anesthesia was required in 6% of the knees with single radius femurs and medial constaint tibial liners, but only in 1% of the single radius femur knees without medial constraint liners. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. External rotation values are higher on average, when ligament tensioning / balancing is employed with this novel system compared to measured resection systems. In this study this resulted in consistent matching of the flexion gap to the extension gap and better patellar tracking. These findings suggest that limiting the surgeon to discrete rotation values may be at odds with where the femur “desires” to be, given soft tissue considerations for each patient. Also, even with ideal soft tissue balancing, TKA implant design can have a significant affect on the outcome measure of development of arthrofibrosis

Introduction. Optimized tibial tray rotation during a total knee replacement (TKR) is critical for tibiofemoral congruency through full range of motion, as it affects soft tissue tension, stability and patellar tracking. Surgeons commonly reference the tibial tubercle, or the “floating tibial tray,” while testing the knee in flexion and extension. Utilization of embedded sensors may enable the surgeon to more accurately assess tibiofemoral contact points during surgery. Methods. The malrotation of the tibiofemoral congruency when utilizing the mid to medial 1/3 of the tibial tubercle for tibial rotation was evaluated in 50 posterior cruciate ligament-retaining TKRs performed by an experienced, high-volume surgeon. Sensors were embedded in the tibial trials; the rotation of the tibial tray was defined, and the femoral contact points in each compartment were captured. The surgical procedure was performed to size and then appropriately rotate the tibial tray. The anterior medial tray was pinned to control anterior-posterior and medio-lateral displacement, and allow internal and external rotation of the tray. With the capsule closed and patella reduced, the knee was reduced with trial implants. The femoral contact points and medial-lateral soft tissue tension were documented. Patellar tracking and changes in soft tissue tension were also documented. Results. In 60% (n = 30/50) of cases, further external rotation (average 5 degrees) was required. No further rotation was required in 10% (n = 5/50), and 30% (n = 15/50) required further internal rotation for optimized congruency. Patellar tracking and changes in soft tissue tension based on rotation showed parallel center of load in medio-lateral compartments and equalized intercompartment pressures resulting in optimized balance of the knee. Conclusions. Utilizing the tibial tubercle for optimized tibial tray rotation and femoral congruency was only adequate in 10% of cases. The use of sensors to define the femoral contact points on the tibia enabled the surgeon to adjust the tibial tray to optimize tibiofemoral congruency. Mal-rotated trays negatively affected soft tissue tension and patellar tracking

Patellofemoral complications in total knee arthroplasty (TKA) are common. Patellar tracking can be adversely affected by component positioning, soft tissue imbalance and bony deformity. Lateral patellar release rates reported in the literature vary from 6– 40%. Computer assisted surgery has largely been confined to the tibio-femoral component of total knee replacement. However, with recently developed software, it can be used to visualise and quantify patellar tracking and thus guide the precise extent and site of lateral patellar release. The aim of this early study was to define the diagnostic envelope for identification and quantisation of patella maltracking using a current generation patella navigation system. Our previous prospective analysis of 100 patients undergoing primary TKA identified pre-operative radiographic indices that correlate with maltracking of the patellofemoral joint. 20 cases were subsequently selected for computer assisted total knee replacement surgery. The navigation system (Vector Vision (BrainLab) version 1.6) was used to achieve accurate alignment and position of the femoral and tibial components. All knee replacements were performed using a posterior cruciate-retaining prosthesis. The femoral component was of a ‘patella-friendly’ design with inbuilt 3 degrees external rotation, and the patella was resurfaced in all cases with a biconvex inlay patellar prosthesis. Patellar tracking was assessed intra-operatively using an additional patellar array and patella tracking-specific software. Real-time displays of patella shift, tilt, rotation and circle radii during multiple flexion-extension cycles were obtained. Where necessary, an ‘outside-to-in’ release of the lateral retinacular complex was performed. The navigation system was used to provide contemporaneous feedback on the effect of the soft tissue releases on the tracking characteristics of the patella component on the prosthetic trochlea. Primary outcomes included the sensitivity and specificity of the system for peri-operative patella maltracking; secondary outcomes included the definition of interventional endpoints and correlation of intra-operative tracking data with post-operative x-rays. The demographic data for the 20 patients enrolled in this study was essentially unremarkable. As compared to standard intra-operative clinical evaluation of patella tracking, the computer navigation system is equally sensitive and specific, and it can potentially detect more subtle instances of maltracking that may elude conventional clinical evaluation. We present patterns of patellar tracking during the surgery for patient with and without pre-operative patellar maltracking. However, the significance of this is unknown without longer-term outcome data. Patella shift abnormalities that were detected by the system, but not tilt, correlated with clinical judgement of patella maltracking (p< 0.05). Soft tissue balancing of the patella can now be performed by observing precise changes in shift and tilt. This can be as important as component alignment for optimising patellar tracking and minimising patellofemoral complications

INTRODUCTION. Use of a novel ligament gap balancing instrumentation system in total knee arthroplasty resulted in femoral component external rotation values which were higher on average, compared to measured resection systems. In one hundred twenty knees in 110 patients the external rotation averaged 6.9 degrees (+/− 2.8) and ranged from 0.6 to 12.8 degrees. The external rotation values in this study were 4° and 2° larger, respectively, than the typical 3° and 5° discrete values that are common to measured resection systems. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of these greater external rotation values for the femoral component on patellar tracking and flexion instability. METHODS. One hundred twenty knees in 110 patients were consecutively enrolled by a single surgeon using the same implant across subjects. All patients underwent arthroplasty with tibial resection first and that set external rotation of the femoral component based upon use of a ligament gap balancing system. Following ligament tensioning/balancing, the femur was prepared. The accuracy of the ligament balancing system was assessed by reapplying equal tension to the ligaments using a tensioning bolt and torque wrench in flexion and extension after the bone resections had been made. The resulting flexion and extension gaps were then measured to determine rectangular shape and equality of the gaps. Postoperative Merchant views were obtained on all of the patients and patellar tracking was assessed and compared to 120 consecutive total knee arthroplasties previously performed by the same surgeon with the same implant using a measured resection system. RESULTS. Rectangular flexion and extension gaps were obtained within +/− 0.5mm in all cases. Equality of the flexion and extension gaps was also obtained within +/− 0.5mm in all cases. Merchant views of the total knee arthroplasties showed central patellar tracking with no tilt or subluxation in 90% of the ligament gap balanced knees and 74% of the measured resection knees. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. External rotation values are higher on average, when ligament tensioning/balancing is employed with this novel system compared to measured resection systems. In this study this resulted in consistent matching of the flexion gap to the extension gap and better patellar tracking. These findings suggest that limiting the surgeon to discrete rotation values may be at odds with where the femur “desires” to be, given soft tissue considerations for each patient

Introduction and Aims: Patellar subluxation is most troublesome and accounts for a number of complications in total knee arthroplasty. The purpose of this study is to report the incidence of need for lateral release before and after tourniquet deflation, and the effect of the tourniquet on proper patellar tracking. Method: A total of 171 knees in 133 patients were prospectively evaluated for the need for a lateral retinacular release before and after tourniquet deflation. All knees were implanted using the same knee system. An initial group of 99 knees were evaluated with tourniquet inflation while the knee was in flexion. Tourniquet inflation with the knee in flexion versus extension was subsequently assessed in a subset group of 72 knees. The need for lateral release was determined using the rule of ‘no-thumbs’ and rule of ‘full contact’. Results: A total of 77 knees appeared to need a lateral release before tourniquet deflation. After tourniquet deflation 27 knees required lateral release representing a 65 percent reduction in lateral release. There was no statistically significant difference (p equals 0.5506: Pearson’s chi square) when comparing the flexion/extension groups. Conclusion: Often, the surgeon evaluates patellar tracking with the tourniquet inflated, not taking into account the effect of tourniquet pressure on the quadriceps muscle. Our findings support the hypothesis that the resulting pressure from the tourniquet impacts patellar tracking. We conclude that if patellar tracking is questionable with the tourniquet inflated, tracking should be re-assessed with the tourniquet deflated before considering a lateral release

During total knee replacement (TKR), surgical navigation systems (SNS) allow accurate prosthesis component implantation by tracking the tibio-femoral joint (TFJ) kinematics in the original articulation at the beginning of the operation, after relevant trial components implantation, and, ultimately, after final component implantation and cementation. It is known that TKR also alters normal patello-femoral joint (PFJ) kinematics resulting frequently in PFJ disorders and TKR failure. More importantly, patellar tracking in case of resurfacing is further affected by patellar bone preparation and relevant component positioning. The traditional technique used to perform patellar resurfacing, even in navigated TKR, is based only on visual inspection of the patellar articular aspect for clamping patellar cutting jig and on a simple calliper to check for patellar thickness before and after bone cut, and, thus, without any computer assistance. Even though the inclusion in in-vivo navigated TKR of a procedure for supporting also patellar resurfacing based on patient-specific bone morphology seems fundamental, this have been completely disregarded till now, whose efficacy being assessed only in-vitro. This procedure has been developed, together with relevant software and surgical instrumentation, as an extension of current SNS, i.e. TKR is navigated, at the same time measuring the effects of every surgical action on PFJ kinematics. The aim of this study was to report on the first in-vivo experiences during TKR with patellar resurfacing. Four patients affected by primary gonarthrosis were implanted with a fixed bearing posterior-stabilised prosthesis (NRG, Stryker®-Orthopaedics, Mahwah, NJ-USA) with patellar resurfacing. All TKR were performed by means of two SNS (Stryker®-Leibinger, Freiburg, Germany) with the standard femoral/tibial trackers, the pointer, and a specially-designed patellar tracker. The novel procedure for patellar tracking was approved by the local ethical committee; the patients gave informed consent prior the surgery. This procedure implies the use of a second system, i.e. the patellar SNS (PSNS), with dedicated software for supporting patellar resurfacing and relative data processing/storing, in addition to the traditional knee SNS (KSNS). TFJ anatomical survey and kinematics data are shared between the two. Before surgery, both systems were initialised and the patellar tracker was assembled with a sterile procedure by shaping a metal grid mounted with three markers to be tracked by PSNS only. The additional patellar-resection-plane and patellar-cut-verification probes were instrumented with a standard tracker and a relevant reference frame was defined on these by digitisation with PSNS. Afterwards, the procedures for standard navigation were performed to calculate preoperative joint deformities and TFJ kinematics. The anatomical survey was performed also with PSNS, with relevant patellar anatomical reference frame definition and PFJ kinematics assessment according to a recent proposal. Standard procedures for femoral and tibial component implantation, and TFJ kinematics assessment were then performed by using relevant trial components. Afterwards, the procedure for patellar resection begun. Once the surgeon had arranged and fixed the patellar cutting jig at the desired position, the patellar-resection-plane probe was inserted into the slot for the saw blade. With this in place, the PSNS captured tracker data to calculate the planned level of patellar bone cut and the patellar cut orientation. Then the cut was executed, and the accuracy of this actual bone cut was assessed by means of the patellar-cut-verification probe. The trial patellar component was positioned, and, with all three trial components in place, TFJ and PFJ kinematics were assessed. Possible adjustments in component positioning could still be performed, until both kinematics were satisfactory. Finally, final components were implanted and cemented, and final TFJ and PFJ kinematics were acquired. A sterile calliper and pre- and post-implantation lower limb X-rays were used to check for the patellar thickness and final lower limb alignment. The novel surgical technique was performed successfully in all four cases without complication, resulting in 30 min longer TKR. The final lower limb alignment was within 0.5°, the resurfaced patella was 0.4±1.3 mm thinner than in the native, the patellar cut was 1.5°±3.0° laterally tilted. PFJ kinematics was taken within the reference normality. The patella implantation parameters were confirmed also by X-ray inspection; discrepancies in thickness up to 5 mm were observed between SNS- and calliper-based measurements. At the present experimental phase, a second separate PSNS was utilised not to affect the standard navigated TKR. The results reported support relevance, feasibility and efficacy of patellar tracking and PFJ kinematics assessment in in-vivo navigated TKR. The encouraging in-vivo results may lay ground for the design of a future clinical patella navigation system the surgeon could use to perform a more comprehensive assessment of the original whole knee anatomy and kinematics, i.e. including also PFJ. Patellar bone preparation would be supported for suitable patellar component positioning in case of resurfacing but, conceptually, also in not resurfacing if patellar anatomy and tracking assessment by SNS reveals no abnormality. After suitable adjustment and further tests, in the future if this procedure will be routinely applied during navigated TKR, abnormalities at both TFJ and PFJ can be corrected intra-operatively by more cautious bone cut preparation on the femur, tibia and also patella, in case of resurfacing, and by correct prosthetic component positioning

Each of the seven cuts required for a total knee arthroplasty has its own science, and can affect the outcome of surgery. Distal Femur. Sets the axial alignment (along with the tibial cut), and too little or too much depth affects ligament tension in extension. Anterior Femur. Sets the rotation of the femoral component, which affects patellar tracking. Internal rotation results in patellar maltracking. External rotation will either notch the femur, or cause too large a femoral component to be selected. Anterior and posterior femoral cuts also determine femoral component size selection. Too small a femoral component causes notching, flexion instability, and mismatch to the tibial component. Too big a femoral component causes overstuffing, periarticular pain, and patellar maltracking. Posterior Femur. Posterior referencing usually works, and the typical knee requires 3 degrees of external rotation to align with the transepicondylar axis. In valgus knees, there may be significant hypoplasia of the lateral femoral condyle, and posterior referencing has to be adjusted to avoid internal rotation. Posterior chamfer. A 4-in-one block saves time. Anterior chamfer. Deeper anterior chamfer allows a deeper trochlear groove, for patellar tracking. Tibia. Sets axial alignment with distal femoral cut. Posterior slope loosens flexion gap. Oversizing results in painful medial overhang. Lateral overhang usually not a problem. Undersizing results in inadequate bone support and subsidence. Patella. Inset or onset. Central peg associated with fracture. Err to medial and superior to assist tracking and avoid impingement on the tibial insert

We evaluated the accuracy of a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)-based method to measure three-dimensional patellar tracking during loaded knee flexion. This method determines the relative positions of the knee bones by shape matching high-resolution three-dimensional geometric models of these bones to fast low-resolution scans taken during loaded flexion. The accuracy of the method’s assessment of patellar position and orientation was determined by comparing test measurements in four cadaver specimens to measurements made in the same specimens using Roentgen Stereophotogrammetric Analysis (RSA). This MRI-based method is more accurate than current two-dimensional imaging methods. The purpose of this study was to determine the accuracy of a MRI-based technique for measuring patellar tracking in loaded flexion. This novel, noninvasive, MRI-based method measures three-dimensional patellar tracking during loaded knee flexion with sufficient accuracy to detect clinically significant changes. Although abnormal patellar tracking is widely believed to be associated with pain and cartilage degeneration at the patella, these relationships have not been clearly established because most current methods assess only the two-dimensional alignment of the patella at one position. Measurements possible with this method should be sufficiently accurate to yield new insights into these relationships. Four cadaver knee specimens were flexed through seventy-five degrees of flexion in an MRI-compatible knee loading rig. A high-resolution image was acquired with each knee in extension and then a series of low-resolution scans (in two slice directions: axial and sagittal) were acquired through a flexion cycle. Segmenting bone outlines from high-resolution scans generated models of the femur, tibia and patella. These models were shape matched to the segmented bone outlines in the low resolution scans. Patellar attitude and position were determined and compared to measurements made using RSA. The mean measurement error in every kinematic parameter was lower for “fast” sagittal plane slices than for “fast” axial plane slices. In general, the mean measurement error was increased by decreasing the number of low-resolution slices. This method is more accurate than many two-dimensional methods, exposes participants to no ionizing radiation, and can be used through a large range of loaded knee flexion. Funding: Supported by an operating grant from the Canadian Institutes for Health Research and a Strategic Grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council. NJM is supported by the Arthritis Society/CIHR Partnership Fund. Please contact author for figures and/or tables

Introduction. Overstuffing the patellofemoral joint during total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is considered a potential cause of limited knee flexion and patellar maltracking. We investigated the effect of patellar thickness on intraoperative knee flexion and patellar tracking in navigated TKA. Methods. Twenty osteoarthritic knees (20 patients) were investigated in this study. Knees with valgus deformity were excluded. The same posterior stabilized prosthesis was employed in all the 20 cases. Preoperative patellar thickness was measured using a caliper, and patellar resection was performed to restore the native thickness by placing a standard 10-mm-thick trial patella. After placement of all trial components, maximal flexion against gravity was measured using a navigation system. The trial patella was also assessed for tracking, with and without suturing of the medial capsule (the “three-stitch” test and no-thumb test, respectively). Subsequently, 2-mm and 4-mm augmentations were applied to the standard trial patella, and the aforementioned measurements and assessments were repeated. Results. The average preoperative patellar thickness was 22.7 mm. Knee flexion with the standard trial patella was 125.3° ± 8.1°. Increasing the patellar thickness by 2 mm significantly (p < 0.0001) reduced the knee flexion by an average of 4.2°. Similarly, a 4-mm augmentation significantly (p < 0.0001) decreased the knee flexion by an average of 8.9°. Increased patellar thickness had no visible effect on patellar tracking in any of the knees. Conclusion. Patellofemoral overstuffing should be avoided to achieve optimal knee flexion in TKA. However, our findings indicate that patellar tracking is not influenced by patellar thickness

We checked intraoperative patellar tracking with both ‘towel clip technique’ and the ‘no thumb technique’ on 354 patients (571 knees) who underwent primary total knee arthroplasty to decide whether to do or not to do lateral retinacular release. All surgical procedures consisted of medial parapatellar arthrotomy and patellar resurfacing. Patellar tracking was assessed under pneumatic tourniquette with the no thumb technique first and reevaluated with the towel clip technique. The tracking was graded as total contact, good contact, lateral contact, and subluxation. The knees graded as total or good contact with the no thumb technique were classified into group A; those graded lateral contact or subluxation by the no thumb technique but total or good contact by the towel clip technique were classified into group B; and those graded lateral contact or subluxation by both techniques were classified into group C, in which lateral releases were performed. We classified 371, 148, and 52 knees into groups A, B, and C respectively. Patellar lateral tilting in the Merchant view was reviewed preoperatively and 2 weeks, 6 weeks, 6 months, and 1 year postoperatively. There were no statistical differences on postoperative patellar tilting among the groups. Assessment of the patellar tracking using only the no thumb technique may overestimate the need for lateral retinacular release. The use of the no thumb technique as a screening test, and reevaluation with the towel clip technique, may reduce unnecessary lateral retinacular release

Introduction. Tibial tuberosity and trochlear groove (TT-TG) distance has been investigated for the patients with primary patellofemoral subluxation/dislocation. To date, TT-TG distance after TKA has not been evaluated, and the effect of postoperative TT-TG distance on patellar tracking is unknown. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effect of TT-TG distance and rotational position of the femoral and tibial components on patellar tilt after TKA. Methods. Consecutive 115 knees for the diagnosis of osteoarthritis were included in the current study. TKA was performed using posterior cruciate ligament sacrificed prosthesis. A total of 17 men and 96 women with an average age of 75.3 years were included at the time of the surgery. Computed tomography (CT) was taken after TKA in full extension. Postoperative TT-TG distance was measured as a reference of surgical epicondylar axis (SEA) of the femur. Patellar tilt was defined as the angle of the patellar component relative to SEA. Femoral and tibial component rotation was measured as the angle relative to SEA and tibial antero-posterior (AP) axis. Tibial AP axis was defined as the line connecting medial one-third of the tibial tuberosity and center of medial-lateral width. Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to determine the correlations between patellar tilt and TT-TG distance and between patellar tilt and femoral and tibial component rotation. Results. TT-TG distance had significant correlation with patellar tilt (Figure 1; r = 0.254, p = 0.006), whereas femoral component rotation (p = 0.092) and tibial component rotation (p = 0.062) were not correlated with patellar tilt. Concerning the effect on TT-TG distance, femoral component rotation (r = 0.248, p = 0.008) and tibial component rotation (r = −0.567, p < 0.001) were correlated with TT-TG distance. Conclusion. The current study investigated the effect of TT-TG distance on patellar tilt with postoperative CT scan. Greater TT-TG distance resulted in more patellar tilt, which might have negative effects on patellar tracking. In previous clinical studies, femoral component and tibial component rotation affected patellar maltracking. In the current study, however, component rotation itself did not affect patellar tilt. Postoperative TT-TG distance includes information of rotational and medial-lateral positioning of the femoral and tibial components, and can be a useful indicator to predict patellar maltracking after TKA. For any figures or tables, please contact authors directly

Introduction. We have been re-evaluating patellofemoral alignment after total knee arthroplasty (TKA) by using a weight- bearing axial radiographic view after detecting patellar maltracking (lateral tilt > 5° or lateral subluxation > 5 mm) on standard non-weight-bearing axial radiographs. However, it is unclear whether the patellar component shape affects this evaluation method. Therefore, we compared 2 differently shaped components on weight-bearing axial radiographs. Methods. From 2004 to 2013, 408 TKAs were performed with the same type of posterior-stabilized total knee implant at our hospital. All patellae were resurfaced with an all-polyethylene, three-pegged component to restore original thickness. Regarding patellar component type, an 8-mm domed component was used when the patella was so thin that a 10-mm bone cut could not be performed. Otherwise, a 10-mm medialized patellar component was selected. Twenty-five knees of 25 patients, in whom patellar maltracking was noted on standard axial radiographs at the latest follow-up, were included in this study. Knees were divided into 2 groups: 15 knees received a medialized patella (group M) while 10 received a domed patella (group D). Weight-bearing axial radiographs with patients in the semi-squatting position were recorded with the method of Baldini et al. Patellar alignment (tilt and subluxation) was measured according to the method described by Gomes et al. using both standard and weight-bearing axial views. Results. Patients’ demographic data, such as age at surgery, sex, and disease were similar for both groups. The average follow-up period was significantly longer in group D than group M (5.4 years vs. 2.5 years, respectively; p = 0.0045, Mann- Whitney U-test). The lateral tilt angle decreased significantly (p < 0.0001, paired t-test) from 6.5° ± 2.8° to 1.0° ± 1.2° with weight bearing in group M. However, this parameter in group D changed from 6.7° ± 2.7° to 4.7° ± 3.0° with weight bearing; the difference was not significant. Lateral subluxation also decreased significantly (p < 0.0001, paired t-test) from 5.1 mm ± 2.4 mm to 2.5 mm ± 1.4 mm with weight bearing in group M. However, that in group D changed from 2.8 mm ± 2.7 mm to 2.4 mm ± 2.8 mm with weight bearing, and the difference was not significant. On weight-bearing views, patellar maltracking was noted in 4 knees in group D but no knees in group M. The difference was significant (p = 0.017, Fisher's exact test). One of the 21 patients with adequate patellar tracking (4.8%) and 1 of 4 patients with maltracking (25%) complained of mild anterior knee pain. Discussion. Patellar tracking on axial radiographic views improved better in group M than in group D with weight bearing. The patellofemoral contact area was maintained with a domed patella despite tilting, but not with a medialized patella. Our results indicate that the shape difference affected the degree of radiographic improvement. Thus, the weight-bearing axial radiographic view devised by Baldini et al. is useful for evaluating patellofemoral alignment after TKA, but the shape of the patellar component should be considered for result interpretation

INTRODUCTION. Despite a large percentage of total knee arthroplasty failures occurs for disorders at the patello-femoral joint (PFJ), current navigation systems report tibio-femoral (TFJ) kinematics only, and do not track the patella. Despite this tracking is made difficult by the small bone and by its full eversion during surgery, a new such technique has been developed, which includes a new tracker, new corresponding surgical instrumentation also for patellar resurfacing, and all relevant software. The aim of this study is to report an early experience in patients of these measurements, i.e. TFJ and PFJ kinematics. METHODS. These measurements were taken in the first ten patients, affected by primary gonarthrosis and implanted with a resurfacing posterior-stabilised prosthesis in the period July 2010 – May 2011. A standard knee navigation system was enhanced by a specially-designed patellar tracker, mounted with a cluster of three light emitting diodes. Standard procedures for femoral and tibial bone preparation were performed according to the navigation system, and the patellar was resurfaced. Relevant resection planes were taken by an instrumented verification probe. Final position of the three components and lower limb alignment were also acquired. Joint kinematics was deduced from the anatomical survey, which included anatomical landmarks on the patellar posterior aspect, and according to established recommendations and original proposals. RESULTS. In addition to the standard assessment of TFJ kinematics, patellar tracking was performed successfully in all cases without complications, resulting in a maximum of 30 min longer operations. PFJ kinematics (see figure) after replacement and resurfacing showed a mean (± standard deviation, over the patients) range of flexion, tilt and medio-lateral shift respectively of 66.9° ± 8.5° (mean of minimum flexion ÷ of maximum flexion, 15.6° ÷ 82.5°), 8.0° ± 3.1° (−5.3° ÷ 2.8°), and 5.3 ± 2.0 mm (−5.5 ÷ 0.2 mm). Statistically significant correlations were found between the internal/external rotation of the femoral component and the range of PFJ tilt (p=0.05; R=0.64); in three patients, medio-lateral PFJ shift seemed to be affected by the medio-lateral position of the femoral component. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS. Data obtained from our preliminary experience support the relevance, feasibility and efficacy of patellar tracking in navigated knee arthroplasty by means of a standard knee navigation system, suitably extended to track also the patellar motion. Patellar-based measurement provides for a more comprehensive assessment of the whole knee function, not only for the resurfacing but also for a best possible positioning of the femoral and tibial components

Rotational malalignment in total knee arthroplasty (TKA) may lead to several complications. Transepicondylar axis has been accepted for a reference of femoral rotation. In contrast, standard reference of tibial rotation remains controversial. Currently, two techniques are widely used, the anatomical landmarks technique and the range-of-movement (ROM) technique. Fifty-one patients underwent posterior-stabilized TKA with center-post self-align ROM technique for tibial component placement. Laurin view radiograph and computer tomography (CT) were used to assess the prosthetic position. The rotational mismatch between tibial and femoral components was 2.00° ± 0.34° (range, 0.1°-5.8°). All TKA showed a tibiofemoral mismatch within 10° (range, 0.1° −5.8°). Intraoperative evaluation of patellar tracking by no-thumb test and the Laurin view showed normal range in 90%. We concluded that tibial component placement with center-post self-align technique in PS-TKA can produce good patellar tracking with acceptable range of tibiofemoral mismatch

Maltracking of the patella associated with TKA is usually the result of several factors coming together in the same patient. Causes of maltracking include residual valgus limb alignment, valgus placement of the femoral component, patella alta, poor prosthetic geometry, internal rotation of the femoral or tibial component, excessive patellar thickness, asymmetric patellar preparation, failure to perform a lateral release when indicated, capsular dehiscence, and dynamic instability. Prior to wound closure after implantation of total knee arthroplasty, patellar tracking should be evaluated to assess the potential need for lateral release. The incidence of lateral release in the past was quite high in some series. Most experienced surgeons will report a lateral release rate less than 5% for varus knees. It is usually higher for valgus knees because they are often associated with patella alta and preoperative subluxation. The classic intraoperative test for patellar tracking has been referred to as the “rule of no thumb” In this test, first suggested by Fred Ewald, the patella is returned to the trochlear groove in extension with the capsule unclosed. The knee is then passively flexed and one assesses whether or not the patella tracks congruently without capsular closure. If it does and the medial facet of the patellar component contacts the medial aspect of the trochlea no lateral release need be considered. If the patella dislocates or tilts, lateral release may be necessary. The test should be repeated with 1 suture closing the capsule at the level of the superior pole. If tracking then becomes congruent without excessive tension on the suture, no release is necessary. If tilting still persists, some surgeons like to assess tracking with the tourniquet deflated so that any binding effect on the quadriceps can be eliminated from the test. A tight PCL can also impart apparent patellar tilt as the femoral component is drawn posteriorly while the tibia (with its tubercle) moves anteriorly